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■r-l-' *> FALKLAND IS 

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THE WORLD 

SHOWING THE 

TERRITOUIAL ACQUISITIONS. 

OF THE 

rXITED STATES 



HIGH-SCHOOL HISTORY 



OF 



THE UNITED STATES 



IVITH MAPS, PLANS, AND ILLUSTRATIONS 



BEING A REVISION OF THE 
"HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES FOR SCHOOLS; 

BY 

ALEXANDER JOHNSTON, LLD. 

Revised and continued by 
WINTHROP MORE DANIELS, M.A. 

FARTHER REVISED AND CONTINUED BY 

WILLIAM MacDONALD, Ph.D. 

P-'ofessor- in Bowdcin Col/eg" 




NEW YORK 

HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY 
1901 



BY ALEXANDER JOHNSTON, LL.D. 



Jlj*»*ry o* Congpees 

Iwo Copies Received 
FFff 8 1901 

FIRST COPY 



HISTORY OF AMERICAN POLITICS. 

Third Edition, Enlarged. Revised by 
WILLIAM M. SLOANE, Pli.D., L.H.D. 
New York: HENRY HOLT & CO. i6m(), 
PP- 355- 

HIGH-SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE 
UNITED STATES. With Maps, Plans, 
and Illustrations. Revised and Continued 
by W. M. Daniels. Farther Revised 
and Continued by WM. MACDONALD. 
New York: HENRY HOLT & CO. i2mo, 
pp. 6oo. 

HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
For Schools. With an Introductory History 
of the Discovery and English Colonization 
of North America. With Maps, Plans, IHus- 
trations, and Questions. Revised and Con- 
tinued by W. M. DANIELS. New York : 
HENRY HOLT & CO. i2mo, pp. 499. 

A SHORTER HISTORY OF THE 
UNITED STATES. For Schools. With 
an Introductory History of the Discovery 
and English Colonization of North America. 
With Maps, Plans, and References to Sup- 
plementary Reading. New York : HENRY 
HOLT & Co. i2mo, pp. 340. 

AMERICAN ORATIONS.,.. FROM THE 
..GOL.ONUL'/ PF;WiOd |to xh^E- '.Present 

'•flAjff. .',Sela''.te4',4s",s.qt;cimen.'>oIf Eloquence, 
<*md \Vith ^^pecial'rei'erence to their value in 




*ale3(ander Johnston. New York' 

G. p. PUTNAM'S Sons. Three volumes, 
i6mo. 

THE UNITED STATES : Its History and 
Constitution. New York : CHARLES 

Scribner's Sons. 



Copyright, 1901, 

BY 

HENRY HOLT & CO. 
n: ' ' t, X? 



. PREFACE TO THE HIGH-SCHOOL EDITION 

In the present revision of the History of the United States for 
Schools, the aim has been to bring the book up to date- and 
add to its practical iisefuhiess, without sacrificing its essential- 
characteristics or doing violence to the principles on which it 
was constructed. Some important topics scantily treated in 
the original have been expanded, and some new topics added, 
such enlargements being indicated by asterisks after the paragraph 
numbers. An account of the McKinlcy Administration, includ- 
ing the Spanish War, replaces the old final chapter. The subject- 
matter has been further grouped into well-defined periods, and 
in a few instances rearranged ; short i)aragraphs — even short 
chapters — -have sometimes been combined ; and the author's 
later Shorter History has occasionally been drawn upon. The 
matter formerly printed in small type has been either relegated 
to foot-notes or incorporated, partly or altogether, with the body 
of the text, or partly or altogether omitted, as in the case of the 
formal biograi)hies and State histories. Each chapter has been 
supplied with topics for further study, in partial substitution 
for the former questions at the foot of the page, and with a 
l)rief bibliography in place of the general bibliography at the 
end of the volume. These new bibliographies have been 
restricted to the more helpful references and the titles sup[)le- 
mented by critical comments. Many of the maps have been 
taken over from the Shorter History, and the other illustrations 
have been carefully' revised. Beyond these changes, little has 
been done except to correct a few errors and to remove some 
blemishes of style. 

William MacDonald. 

BowDOiN CoLLKGE, October, 1900, 

iii 



FROM THE PREFACE TO THE 
" HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES FOR SCHOOLS" 

So many school histories of the United States are already in 
existence, and their preparation has been so excellent in the 
details of idea and execution, that some apology seems to be 
needed for this addition to their number. The apology will be 
found, it is hoped, in the special purpose with which this book 
has been written. 

It is submitted that the designs which have usually controlled 
our school histories are impossible of fulfilment, and, even if 
possible, would not serve the most useful purpose. There are 
already in existence books in abundance which tell stories in the 
manner most attractive to pupils at the most imaginative period 
of life ; and the pupil's mind, if properly directed by the teacher, 
will turn to them naturally and derive more satisfaction and in- 
struction from them than can be gained from any school history 
of usable compass. It hardly seems wise for a school history to 
to force itself into a hopeless competition in a field which has 
already been so fully preempted. History is a task and a method 
of mental discipline ; our school histories attempt to relieve it, 
as no one attempts to relieve grammar or arithmetic, by story- 
telling. One result has been that the history of the compara- 
tively unimportant colonial period has been assigned an inordi- 
nately large space. So much room is given to the stories of 
Smith and Pocahontas, Putnam and the wolf, and similar epi- 
sodes, that the real history of the United States is cramped, 
marred, and brought to a lame and impotent conclusion. Judg- 
ing from the space usually assigned to each, a reader must con- 
clude that the history of the United States deserves a much 
larger treatment for the time when the United "States did not 



vi PREFACE 

exist than for the time of its prominence as a nation — for a time 
when the population was but 200,000 than for the time when 
the popuhition was 50,000,000. 

The reason generally advanced for the transfer of the stirring 
stories of the past out of the reading book or general reading 
into the school histories is that they stimulate the minds of pupils 
to an emulation of the great deeds which are narrated. In 
isolated cases the reason may be valid ; there may have been 
cases in which the mind of some pupil has been thus stimulated 
with useful effect. But tlie mass of pupils have no opportunity 
to exhibit any such result ; their need is to learn from the his- 
tory of the past how best to perform the simple and homely 
duties of good citizenship. Very few of the boys in our schools 
will ever have an opportunity to exhibit, in the foundation of a 
colony, the patient virtues of the Pilgrim Fathers or the exec- 
utive ability of John Smith ; almost every one of them will soon 
be called upon to give his conclusion by vote upon questions 
which involve some understanding of the political, financial, or 
economic problems of the past. It seems unfair, as well as un- 
wise, to disregard the needs of the great mass in favor of the 
desires of the very few, especially as the latter will be certain to 
gratify their desires in a more natural way elsewhere. 

In the ordinary school course, no place can well be made for 
treatises on the duties of citizenship, on jjolitical economy, or 
on finance. Even if they could be introduced, their most valu- 
able portions would consist of deductions from the events re- 
corded in a history such as this. The effort to inculcate the les- 
son with the facts, if applied to the usual school history, would 
make it hopelessly bulky. Something must be dropped ; and it 
seems unwise to retain the stories where they conflict with far 
more important matters whose omission the ordinary school 
course will never sui)])ly. The typical schoolboy must get his 
political, economic, and financial education from his school his- 
tory of the United States, if he is to get it at all. 

The design of this book, then, is not simply to detail the 
events which make up the history of the United States, but to 
group those events which seem likely to shed light on the respon- 



PREFACE vu 

sibilities of the citizen to the i)resent or future, and to give the 
student the light in connection with the event. In this process 
the effort has been made, with caution and with a studied sim- 
plicity of language, to interest the pupil in the wonderful devel- 
opment of the United States and the difficult economic problems 
which have grown out of it. If, in so doing, the peculiar prov- 
ince of the story-writer has been abandoned, the abandon- 
ment does not seem to the writer a real sacrifice. Wherever 
further compression has been necessary, it has been applied at 
the beginning, at the time when there was no "United States," 
with the design of giving as much space as possible to our 
naiioftal history. And in every place where it has seemed 
possible, the attention of the pupil has been directed to the 
peculiar circumstances and limitations of the time under con- 
sideration, and to the idea of growth to be attained by a com- 
parison with the present. For much the same reasons, other 
topics, not essential to the main subject, such as the tribal 
institutions of the aborigines, and the Spanish conquests of 
Mexico and Peru, have been left untouched. And, in nar- 
rating the wars of the United States, while the effort has been 
made to give the pupil a definite idea of the purposes, plans, 
and results of campaigns, it has not seemed best to cumber 
the narration with a catalogue of engagements and com- 
manders, whose very names are only a spring of confusion to 
the mind of the pupil. 

As the book is not intended to be a story-book, so it is not 
intended to be a picture-book. Maps in abundance seem to 
the author the only legitimate embellishment of a school his- 
tory. While the pictures in this volume have been restricted 
to illustrations of such persons and things as are pertinent to 
the text, they have been introduced with regret, and only as 
a yielding to the present prejudice which denies an effective 
audience to the school history not so illustrated. It is to be 
hoped that the time will soon come when the space now sur- 
rendered to the graphic additions of the average schoolboy's 
pencil will be utilized to better purpose. 

The commanding position already attained by the United 



viii PREFACE 

States, which can only become more overshadowing in the future, 
has made it evident that the future American citizen must be 
taught to think more of the responsibilities of the present than 
of the picturesque events of the past. The enormous political 
edifice which has appeared in central North America is ris- 
ing with such increasing swiftness that every good citizen must 
feel a sense of personal responsibility for its continuance and 
good management. This volume is an attempt to lead Amer- 
ican youth to be "good citizens," in this sense of the phrase ; 
and, whatever defects of execution it may show, the writer is 
confident that the spirit of the attempt will have the sym- 
pathy of every friend of education. 

Princeton, N. J., June i, 1885. 



PUBLISHERS' NOTE 

To THE Third Edition (1897) 

The previous editions of this work have undergone a revision 
at the hands of Prof. W. M. Daniels of Princeton University. 
The changes made consist in minor alterations in the body of 
the text ; in the substitution of the returns of the Census of 1890 
for the earlier figures ; and in the addition of two chapters 
covering the last two Administrations, and a Bibliography. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Chapter I. — Discovery and Early Exploration: 1492-1540... i 

Chapter II. — Attempts at Settlement : 1540-1607 13 

Chapter III. — General Characteristics of English Coloniza- 
tion : 1607-1750 22 

Chapter IV. — The New England Colonies: 1620-1750 30 

Massachusetts Bay Colony 30 

New Hampshire 37 

Connecticut 37 

Rhode Ishmd 41 

Vermont 42 

New England in General 43 

Chapter V. — The Southern Colonies : 1607-1750 51 

Virginia 51 

Maryland 55 

North Carolina 57 

South Carolina 60 

Georgia 62 

The Southern Colonies in General 64 

Chapter VI. — The Middle Colonies: 1623-1750 67 

New York 67 

New Jersey 72 

Pennsylvania 73 

Delaware 76 

The Colonies in General. 76 

Chapter VII. — The Struggle for English Supremacy : 1750- 

1763 83 

French Settlement 83 

The French and Indian War 88 

State of the Colonies in 1763 97 

Chapter VIII. — Colonial Resistance : 1 763-1775 102 

The Stamp Act 102 

Lexington and Concord 113 

State of the Colonies in 1775 115 

Chapter IX. — The Revolution : 1775-1781 120 

ix 



X TABLE OF CONTENTS 

PACE 

Events at Boston 124 

Events in Canada 127 

Events in England and on the Coast 128 

Independence 130 

Events in the Middle States : 1776-1778 131 

Burgoyne's Expedition, 1777 139 

Aid from France 144 

Events in the North after 1778 146 

Events on the Sea 153 

Events in the South : 1 778-1 781 155 

Yorktown, 1781 162 

Peace, 1783 165 

Chapter X. — The Confederation : 1777-1789 171 

Failure of the Confederation 171 

Formation of the Constitution 176 

State of the Country in 1789 183 

Chapter XL— Federalist Control : 1789-1801 189 

Washington's Administrations : 1789-1797 189 

John Adams's Administration : 1797-1802 202 

Chapter XII. — Republican Supremacy : 1801-1809 210 

Jefferson's Administrations : 1801-1809 210 

Domestic Affairs. . . 213 

Foreign Affairs 217 

Chapter XIII. — The Second War with Great Britain: 1812-14. 222 

Madison's Administrations : 1809-1817 222 

Failures in the North : 1812-14 225 

Successes on the Ocean 229 

Successes on the Lakes : 1813-14 236 

Disasters on the Atlantic Coast 239 

Dissatisfaction at Home 241 

Successes in the North, 1814 242 

Successes in the Southwest : 1813-15 243 

Peace 246 

Chapter XIV. — Social and Political Readjustment: i8- -28. 254 

Monroe's Administrations : 1817-25 254 

John Quincy Adams's Administration : 1825-9 263 

Chapter XV.— Jackson and Van Buren : 1829-41 271 

Jackson's Administrations : 1829-37 271 

Political Affairs 285 

Van Buren's Administration : 1837-41 292 

Chapter XVL— Texas and the Mexican War: 1841-9 301 

Harrison's and Tyler's Administrations : 1841-5 301 

Polk's Administration : 1845-9 309 

Internal Affairs 309 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



I'AGE 



Origin of the Mexican War 312 

Operations on the Pacific 315 

Operations in Northern Mexico 316 

Operations in Central Mexico 317 

Peace 321 

Chapter XVII. — The Struggle for Slave Territory : 1849-57. 327 

Taylor's and Fillmore's Administrations : 1849-53 327 

Pierce's Administration : 1 853-7 333 

Internal Affairs 333 

Foreign Affairs 334 

Slavery and Politics 336 

Chapter XVIII. — The Eve of the Civil War: 1857-61 343 

Kuciianan's Administration : 1857-61 343 

Internal Affairs 343 

Slavery and Politics 348 

Sectional Division 352 

Secession 354 

Chapter XIX. — The War for the Union : 1861-65 362 

Lincoln's Administration : 1861-65 362 

Events of 1861 362 

Events of 1862 375 

On the Coast 381 

Events of 1863 398 

In the East 398 

In the West 400 

On the Coast 405 

Internal Affairs 407 

Foreign Affairs - 408 

Events of 1864 409 



In the East. 



409 



In the West 413 

On the Coast 418 

On the Ocean 421 

> Internal Affairs 422 

Events of 1865 423 



Conclusion of the War . 



423 



Death of PrQ'^ident Lincoln 428 

Military Summary of the War 429 

Chapter XX. — Reconstruction 440 

Johnson's Administration 440 

Reconstruction 441 

Impeachment 446 

Internal Affairs 448 

Grant's Administrations : 1869-77 450 



xu TABLE OF CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Foreign Affairs 450 

Internal Affairs 452 

The End of Reconstruction 455 

Political Affiirs 458 

Chapter XXI. — Economic Development 464 

Hayes's Administration : 1877-81 464 

Internal Affairs 464 

Finances 466 

Foreign Affairs 468 

Political Affairs 468 

Garfield's and Arthur's Administrations : 1881-5 469 

Chapter XXII. — Cleveland and Harrison 475 

Cleveland's First Administration ; 1885-9 475 

Harrison's Administration : 1889-93 4^0 

Cleveland's Second Administration : 1893-7 488 

Chapter XXIII. — Exp.\nsion : 1897-1900 500 

Appendix I. — The Declaration of Independence 531 

Appendix II. — The Articles of Confederation 535 

Appendix III. — The Constitution of the United States 543 

Appendix IV. — Formation of the States 559 

Appendix V.— Growth of the States 560 

Appendix VI. — Growth of the Cities 562 

Appendix VII. — Population of the Sections 564 

Appendix VIII. — Congressional Representation of the Sec- 
tions 564 

Appendix IX. — The Sections in 1870-1890 565 

Appendix X. — Cabinet Officers of the Administrations 567 

Appendix XI. — Washington's Farewell Address (Extracts). . . 575 

Index 577 



MAPS 



In the historical maps, the colors show the political divisions at the time 
the map refers to ; but, to aid in impressing these on the memory, other 
political divisions, and prominent facts that may not strictly belong to the 
time, are sometimes indicated in black. 

COLORED. 

FACING PAGE 

The World, Showing the Territorial Acquisitions 

OF THE United States Frotitispicxe 

Physical Map of the United States i 

European Provinces, 1655 22 

British Cessions to i 732 76 

The United States at the Peace of 1783 166 

Acquisitions of Territory (1776-1867) 214 

The United States in 1830 276 



The Areas of Secession. 



354 



The United States in 1900, exclusive of Insular Possessions 500 

uncolored. 

PAGE 

Columbus's Voyage 6 

Atlantic Discoveries 8 

De Soto's Expedition 10 

Atlantic Settlements 14 

Massachusetts Bay Colony 36 

New Hampshire Colony 37 

Connecticut Colony 38 

Rhode Island Colony 42 

Earx,y French Wars 47 

Virginia Colony 55 

Maryland 56 

Carolina 60 

The Middle Colonies 71 

French Forts ge 

The French War 95 

The Revolution in New England 124 

Battle of Bunker Hill 125 

Campaign in Middle States 133 

xiii 



XIV MAPS 

PAGE 

Capture and Evacuation of Philadf.lpiiia i86 

Burgoyne's Expedition. 141 

The British Isles 154 

Revolution in the Southern Sta tes 156 

The Yorktown Campaign 163 

Main Movements of British Troops i;y Land and Sea 164 

Barbary States , 217 

Operations on the Lakes 227 

Attack on Washington — Course of the British 240 

Niagara Frontier 243 

Expedition against New Orleans 245 

Seminole War 283 

War with Mexico 313 

Scott's March to Mexico 319 

Fort Sumter and Charleston Harijor 364 

Operations in Virginia 369 

Washington and Vicinity 372 

Operations in the West 378 

Hampton Roads 382 

New Orleans ' 384 

Operations in the East 387 

Seven Days' Battles 391 

First Invasion of the North 393 

Second Invasion of the North 399 

The Vicksburg Campaign 401 

Murfreesboro to Atlanta 405 

Operations in the East 410 

Sherman's March 417 

On the Coast 419 

Operations in Virginia , 424 

Hawaiian Islands 511 

PiiiLM'PiNE Islands , 520 

Por TO Rico 523 



ILLUSTRATIONS 



PAGE 



Section of Behaim's Globe 3 

Christopher Columbus .... 4 

The Caravels of Columbus 5 

Sir Walter Raleigh 16 

Henry Hudson 19 

The Mayflower 31 

Governor John Winthrop 33 

Site of Boston in 1620 35 

Charter Oak 40 

Captain John Smith 52 

Peter Stu yves ant 68 

New York City in 1656 70 

William Penn 75 

Samuel De Champlain 84 

William Pitt 91 

James Wolfe 92 

Quebec , 93 

British Stamp 103 

Patrick Henry 104 

George HI 106 

Faneuil Hall, Boston 107 

John Hancock 108 

Carpenter's Hall 121 

Benjamin Franklin 123 

Union Flag 126 

Rattlesnake Flag 127 

Philip Schuyler 128 

Liberty Bell 131 

Independence Hall in 1776 132 

Marquis De La Fayette 137 

Gen. John Burgoyne 140 

Horatio Gates 143 

Continental Money 149 

Anthony Wayne 151 

XV 



'^^^ ILLUSTRATIONS 

John Andre >*agr 

John Paul Jones ' " * ' ' '52 

Nathaniel Greene *53 

State-house at Annapolis '.' ". '59 

Alexander Hamilton , '77 

Washington ^^2 

Mount Vernon ^^^ 

Fitch's Steamboat '. '99 

Cincinnati in 1787 (Fort WASHiNGTON) """^ 

John Adams 201 

The Capitol at Washington. .."'.'''. ^°^ 

Thomas Jefferson ^°^ 

Robert Fulton 2^2 

James Madison , 215 

American Gunboat '. ^^^ 

James Lawrence ^32 

Oliver H. Perry ^^^ 

Thomas Macdonough ^37 

James Monroe ^3^ 

John C. Calhoun ^^^ 

John Quincy Adams '.'.' ^^3 

Henry Clay 264 

Andrew Jackson ^^7 

Early Railroad Train ^^^ 

Chicago in 1830— Fort Dearborn."."'.' ^^^ 

Bryant, Whittier, Longfellow, Holmes' ^^l 

Hawthorne. Irving, Poe, Cooper ^^ 

Daniel Webster ^^° 

Martin Van Buren .'........ ^^* 

William Henry Harrison .'. ^^3 

John Tyler 3^2 

Samuel F. B. Morse ". ^02 

James K. Polk '.'..'.".. -^"^ 

The Hoe Printing-machine -^^^ 

Ancient Hand Printing-press. ....'.'.'.".'. ^'° 

Winfield Scott 3 10 

Zachary Taylor 3i8 

Millard Fillmore , ^27 

Salmon P. Chase ^27 

Franklin Pierce 33^ 

Charles Sumner ^^^ 

James Buchanan ,' ' 34° 

Lowell, Emerson, Parkman, Motley ^'^^ 

King Cotton 34^ 

349 



ILLUSTRATIONS xvii 

PAGE 

Secession Hall 355 

Secession Cockade 355 

Jefferson Davis 356 

Alexander H. Stephens 358 

Abraham Lincoln 362 

Fort Sumter 365 

George B. McClellan - 370 

Ulysses S. Grant 373 

Albert Sidney Johnston 376 

Western Gunboats 380 

Confederate Ram 381 

John Ericsson . . 382 

The Monitor and the Merrimac 383 

David G. Farr agut 385 

Joseph E. Johnston 388 

Robert E. Lee 389 

Thomas J. Jackson 390 

Ambrose E. Burnside 394 

The Alabama 397 

George G. Meade 400 

W. T. Sherman 414 

George H. Thomas 416 

Philip H. Sheridan 426 

Signatures of Grant and Lee 426 

William H. Seward 429 

Andrew Johnson 440 

Edwin M. Stanton 447 

R. B. Hayes 465 

James A. Garfield 470 

Chester A. Arthur 470 

Grover Cleveland 475 

Benjamin Harrison 480 

William McKinley 500 



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Deep yellow represt 




Ki feet and over. 



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



CHAPTER I 

DISCOVERY AND EARLY EXPLORATION 

1492-1540 

1. The United States of America cover the central por- 
tion of North America, from the Atlantic Ocean to the 
Pacific. Four hundred years ago this territory was 
unknown to men of the Eastern Hemisphere. Its lakes, 
rivers, and mountains were just as we know them now; 
and the face of the country has changed very little, 
except in the disappearance of the forests. But the great 
cities, the railroads, the telegraphs, and all the works of 
civilized man were lacking. The territory has been 
changed from a wilderness to the abode of one of the most 
powerful nations of the earth ; and the story of this change 
is the history of the United States of America. 

2. The Inhabitants of America, when the country was 
discovered by Europeans, were copper-colored savages, to 
whom Columbus gave the name of Indians, because he 
thought that he had found the eastern coast of Asia, or 
India. The Indians built no cities or towns, made no great 
inventions, had no written language, and led a rude and 
wandering life. Their chief business and pleasure were 
in war and hunting, the women doing the work of the 
wigwam and the field. Whence the Indians came we do 
not know. Only in Mexico and Peru did the European 



2 DISCO yERY AND EARLY EXPLORATION 

explorers find anything resembling permanent com- 
munities or orderly governments. 

3. The Indians have been gradually pushed back from 
the coast by the white settlers, until now they are almost 
all beyond the Mississippi, controlled and cared for, by the 
Government of the United States. When America was dis- 
covered the Indians were grouped in tribes, though there 
was no exact boundary line between the countries of 
different tribes. The Indians of the Atlantic coast were 
generally Algonquins ; the names of some of their tribes 
are preserved in our names of places, such as Narragansett, 
Massachusetts, and the Indian names of Maine. The 
Indians of the interior or Middle States were Iroquois; 
their strongest branch was a confederacy in New York, 
called the Six Nations, composed of the Mohawks, 
Oneidas, Onondagas, Cayugas, Senecas, and Tuscaroras 
(§ 95)- Oi"' the other side of the Iroquois, along the 
Mississippi, there were other Alonquins, some of whom, 
as the Shawnees, Peorias, Pottawattomies, Sacs, and 
Foxes, still survive in the Indian Territory across the 
Mississippi; while others, as the Illinois, are remembered 
only by names of places. The tribes of the south. Creeks, 
Cherokees, Chickasaws, and others, were kindred to the 
Iroquois. Their descendants are also in tlie Indian Ter- 
ritory. 

4. Europe had advanced so far in civilization, about the 
year 1450, that its people were prepared to discover and 
conquer a new world. They had discovered the use of 
gunpowder, which made them superior to peoples who did 
not possess it; of the mariner's compass, which enabled 
them to sail out of sight of land, and thus discover new 
countries ; and of printing by movable types, which made 
books abundant, and thus spread the news of discoveries. 
Many of them had come to believe that the earth was 



CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS 



round, though nobody suspected that there was a great 
continent between western Europe and eastern Asia. 
Portuguese sailors were exploring the west coast of Africa, 





Q 



AZORES J ^,^^9V'. 

tPO 



Section of Behaim"s Globe.' 



and one of them, in i486, succeeded in reaching the Cape 
of Good Hope. Everywhere men were beginning to think 
and talk of geographical discovery ; and the man who was 
to make the greatest of modern discoveries was already 
planning it. 

5. Christopher Columbus, a sailor of Genoa, in Italy, 
had led from his youth a seafaring life, and had come to 
the conclusion that the earth was round, and that he 



1 "It has always been supposed that in the well-known globe of Martin 
Behaim we get in the main an expression of the views held by Toscanelli, 
Columbus, and others of Behaim's contemporaries, who espoused the notion 
of India lying over against Europe." — JVinsor's History of America. 



4 DISCOVERY AND EARLY EXPLORATION 

could reach the Indies, or eastern Asia, by saihng west- 
ward part of the distance around the world. He had no 
money to fit out ships, and when he asked for money 
from Genoa, Portugal, England, and Spain, they refused 
it. Finally Queen Isabella of Spain supplied him with 
money enough to fit out three small vessels. The largest 
of them would hardly be thought safe for a sea-voyage at 
present. 

6. Columbus's First Voyage began at Palos, in Spain 
(August 3, 1492). As far as the Canary Islands the way 
was well known. Thence he sailed out into the west on 




Christopher Columbus. 

a way that no man had ever sailed before. His men 
became frightened and rebellious as the days passed by 
without the sight of land, but he induced them to press 
onward. On the morning of October 12, the sailors saw 
before them one of the Bahamas (probably Watling's 



DISCOVERY AND E/iRLY EXPLORATION 



Island), to which Columbus gave the name of San Sal- 
vador. Sailing slowly south and southeast for several 
months, he explored the West Indies to their north- 
east corner. Then his little fleet spread its sails and 
returned to Europe, carrying unknown men and spec- 
imens of plants as proofs that a new world had been dis- 
covered. 

7. Columbus's Discovery caused a great excitement in 
Europe, as the printing-press scattered the news of it. 
Spanish ships, with soldiers and sailors, at once began to 
sail boldly westward, now that it was known that there 

was a new world and wealth i ^ ^ 

across the Atlantic. Their ad- ^ ^ ^ 

ventures, particularly in Mex- 




500 1000 2000 

Columbus's Voyage. 



ico and Peru, make up a w'onderful and interesting story, 
but it does not fall within the limits of our own history. 
Before many years had passed, Spain had conquered for 
itself nearly all South America, and that part of North 
America which is now called Mexico. But the Spaniards 
paid little attention to the territory which now belongs 
to the United States, preferring countries where gold and 
silver were easily obtained. 

8. Four Voyages in all were made by Columbus, but 
without any further great discovery. He was treated 



SPANISH AND ENGLISH DISCOVERIES 7 

unkindly by Ferdinand, king of Spain, and on one occa- 
sion was sent home in chains by one of the king's officials. 
He never touched on the continent of North America, 
though on his third voyage, in 1498, he landed on the 
continent of South America, near the Orinoco River. 
He died without knowing that he had discovered a new 
world, but still supposing that he had only reached the 
East Indies. The world which he had discovered was 
not named for him. It was called America, from Amerigo 
Vespucci (in Latin Auicricus Vcspiicius), a merchant and 
traveller of Florence, who was the first to describe it as a 
separate continent. Before this happened, the native 
inhabitants were generally called Indians, from the belief 
that their country was the Indies ; and the name has been 
retained. 

9. Spanish Discoveries soon made known that part of 
the coast of North America which lies on the Gulf of 
Mexico and the southern Atlantic. In 15 12, Ponce 
de Leon discovered the coast of what is now eastern 
Florida, giving it the name of Florida because he dis- 
covered it on Easter Sunday, called in Spanish Pasaia 
Floi-ida. In 1520, Ayllon explored the coast of what 
is now South Carolina; and in 1528, Narvaez explored 
the northwest coast of Florida, along the Gulf of 
Mexico. 

10. English Discoveries were the ones which had the 
most to do with the country which is now the United 
States. John Cabot, a merchant of Venice, in Italy, then 
living in Bristol, England, and his son Sebastian, fitted 
out a ship, the Matthciv, which in 1497 discovered land 
in the region of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. They called 
it Prima Vista ("first sight"). In 1498, Sebastian 
Cabot explored the whole Atlantic coast from Cape 
Breton to Albemarle Sound, and claimed it for England. 



8 



DISCOVERY AND EARLY EXPLORATION 



No attempt to settle the 
country was made for many 
years, except an unsuccessful 
effort by Martin Frobisher to 
colonize Labra- 
dor; but Eng- 
lish sailors con- 
tinued to follow 
the path of the 
Cabots across 
the northern 
Atlantic, in 
order to share 
in the New- 
foundland fish- 
eries. 

11. French 
Discoveries had 
at first very little 
to do with the 




SCALE OF MILES 



400 600 800 

Atlantic Discoveries. 



future history of the 
United States. The 
Newfoundland fish- 
eries attracted 
French sailors across 
the Atlantic, and, in 
1506, Denys dis- 
covered the Gulf of 
St. Lawrence. In 
1524, Verrazzani, a 
Florentine sailor in 
the French service, 
explored the Atlantic 
coast, north of 
what is n o w 
South Carolina. 
In 1534, Cartier 
discovered the 
great river St. 
Lawrence, and 
this drew the 



PORTUGAL AND SPAIN 9 

French off in that direction, so that whatever discoveries 
they made were made in Canada (§ 19). 

12. Portugal and Spain had made an agreement in 
1493, by which Portugal was not to interfere with Spain 
in America, and Spain was not to interfere with Portugal 
in Africa or the East Indies. Portugal, therefore, took 
no part in American discovery, except that Cortereal, a 
Portuguese sailor, explored the Atlantic coast, in 1501, 
from Maine to Newfoundland. The maritime nations of 
western Europe were then Spain, England, France, and 
Portugal ; no other nation was at all likely to attempt 
settlements in America. Holland was then subject to 
Spain, and attempted no settlements until it had become 
independent (§ 28). Italy and Germany were then 
divided into many weak states ; and Sweden was not 
strong enough to dispute the new continent with the great 
nations (§ 29). 

13. The Interior of North America was not touched by 
any of the discoveries above mentioned. Some of the 
Spanish governors of Mexico sent expeditions northward 
into what is now New Mexico and California; but they 
accomplished little. The only important effort to explore 
the interior, before the English colonies began to grow 
inward from the coast, was the remarkable expedition of 
De Soto. 

14. De Soto was the Spanish governor of Cuba. In 
1539, he landed at Tampa Bay, in Florida, with a force 
of about 600 men, and marched through the continent for 
three years, vainly hoping to find and conquer a rich 
Indian kingdom. He went north nearly to the Tennessee 
River, then southerly to where Mobile now stands, and 
thence northwesterly to the Mississippi River, which he 
crossed in April, 1541, near the present southern boundary 
of Tennessee. He marched westward for several hundred 



10 



DISCOVERY AND EARLY EXPLORATION 




60 100 200 300 

De Soto's Expedition. 



miles across the present State of Arkansas, but found 
everywhere only savages wandering in a wilderness. All 

this time, it was 



De Soto's courage 
which had kept up 
the courage of the 
men, but even De 
Soto's courage 
gave out at length, 
and he began to 
m o V e southward 
on the way home. 
He died, worn 
out, on the banks 
of the Mississippi, 
near the mouth of 
the Red River, and was buried beneath the waters of the 
great river which he had discovered. His soldiers then 
built boats, and sailed down the river to the Gulf of 
Mexico, and so to Mexico, which the Spaniards had con- 
quered in 152 I. 

15. The Pacific Coast was explored in 1543 by Cabrillo 
and Ferelo, two Spaniards, as far north as Oregon. In 
1579, Drake, an English navigator, sailed along the coast 
and called it New Albion. In 1592, Juan de Fuca, a 
Spanish pilot, explored the coast as far as the strait which 
bears his name. The territory remained under the control 
of Spain, and a few settlements were made by Spanish 
missionaries ; but little was known about the country until 
it became a part of the United States in 1848 (§ 544.) 

16. The Discoveries of Spain, England, France, and 
Portugal have been given separately above. They may 
be collected, as follows: 



SUMMARY II 

(S., Spanish; E., English; F., French; P., Portuguese.) 
ATLANTIC COAST. 

1492 — Columbus (S. ) : West Indies § 6 

1497 — Cabots (E.) : Cape Breton Island 10 

1498 — Sebastian Cabot (E.): Albemarle Sound to Caf)e 

Breton Island 10 

1 501 — Cortereal (P.) : Maine to Newfoundland 12 

1506 — Denys (F.) : Gulf of St. Lawrence 11 

1 5 1 2 — Ponce de Leon (S. ) : Florida 9 

1520 — Ayllon (S. ): South Carolina 9 

1524 — Verrazzani (F. ): South Carolina to Nova Scotia. . . 11 

I 534— Cartier (F. ) : River St. Lawrence 11 

GULF OF MEXICO. 

1528 — -Narvaez (S. ) : Northwestern Florida 9 

PACIFIC COAST. 

1543 — Cabrillo (S. ): Pacific coast to Oregon 15 

1 579 — Drake (E. ) : Pacific coast 15 

1592 — De Fuca (S. ): Pacific coast to British America.. . . 15 

INTERIOR. 

1540 — Coronado (S. ) : New Mexico 13 

I 540 — Alar^on (S. ) : Colorado River 13 

I 54 I — De Soto: Mississippi River and Southern States. . . 13 

Topics for Further Study. 

1. The personal appearance of a typical Indian. 

2. The character of Columbus. 

3. The reasons for the activity of Spain in explorations. 

Supplementary Reading. 

Sources. — Extracts from the Sagas, describing the supposed 
voyages to Vinland, are given in American History Leaflets, 
No. 3; the same series, No. i, gives the letter of Columbus to 
Santangel announcing his discovery. There are various extracts 
from documents in Iligginson's American Explorers. 

Narrative Works. — The best general account of the events 
included in this chapter is Fiske's Discovery 0/ America. There 



12 bISCOyERY /iND EARLY EXPLORATION 

are lives of Columbus by Irving and Winsor. Winsor's Nar- 
rative and Critical History of America is especially detailed for 
this period, and is rich in geographical matter. Bryant and 
Gay's Popular History of the United States covers the whole 
course of American history from the discovery of the continent. 
Bancroft's United States and Hildreth's United States begin with 
1492, as does Doyle's English in America; but these works 
deal briefly with the period of discovery and exploration. On 
the Spanish conquest, Plelps's Spanish Conquest of America, and 
H. H. Vizucroii' & Mexico and Central America, are perhaps the 
most useful extended works. Prescott's Conquest of Mexico 
and Conquest of Peru are well known, but must be corrected 
by later works. A good popular account is Higginson's 
American Explorers. On the aborigines, see Bancroft's Amative 
Races. 

Illustrative Literature. — 'Lon^ieWo'w' s Hiawatha; Lowell's 

Voyage to Finland ?Lnd Columbus ; Cooper's Mercedes of Castile ; 
Lew Wallace's Fair God ; W. G. Simms's Damsel of Darien, 

Vasconselos, awd Lily and Totetn ; Kingsley's Westward Ho / 



CHAPTER II 

ATTEMPTS AT SETTLEMENT 

1540 1607 

17. The Discoveries which we have been considering 
had made the Atlantic coast of North America pretty 
well known before the year 1530, but settlement did not 
begin until some seventy years later. Spain did not seem 
inclined to settle this part of the continent. Our two 
oldest towns, at present, St. Augustine, in Florida (founded 
in 1565), and Santa Fe, in New Mexico (founded in 
1582), were originally Spanish settlements, but were not 
in the territory of the United States when our national 
history began. France and P^ngland made a number of 
unsuccessful attempts to found settlements before England 
at last succeeded in getting control of the coast. We 
will first consider the failures. 

18. French Failures began in 1540, when Cartier, who 
had discovered the St. Lawrence River in 1534 (S ii)- 
made a settlement at Quebec ; but it was given up after 
the second winter. French vessels still sailed up the 
St. Lawrence from time to time, but for sixty years the 
people in France made no further attempt to found a 
settlement here. In i 562 and i 564, French settlements 
were attempted on the southern Atlantic coast, but with- 
out success. The first was at Port Royal ; but the 
colonists became discouraged, left for home, and came 
near starving on the voyage. The second, near where 

13 



14 



/ATTEMPTS AT SETTLEMENT 



St. Augustine now stands, was too near the Spanish pos- 
sessions, and the Spaniards destroyed it. Another French 
expedition took revenge on the Spaniards, but made no 




further attempt to 
continue the settle- 
ment. 
19. Canada finally 
became the seat of suc- 
cessful French settlement 
in North America. In 1605, 
De Monts, with a commission 
from the king of France, made a 
successful settlement in Acadia (the 
French name for Nova Scotia).^ In 
1608, Champlain made a settlement 
at Quebec. Other Frenchmen settled 
along the St. Lawrence, and took possession of what is 
now the Dominion of Canada. It remained a French 
possession until 1763 (§ 154), ^md the descendants of the 
old settlers are still known as French-Canadians. 

1 De Monts also n ade efforts to settle within the' limits of what is now 
New Entjland, but failed. The French did not bcs^in permanent settlements 
within the territory of the present Uniled States until about 1668 (§ 137). 



Atlantic Settlements. 



ENGLISH F/1ILURES 15 

20. English Failures. — For nearly a century after 
Columbus's discovery, the English did little in support of 
the claims which the Cabots had made for them, except 
that an English captain, Martin Frobisher, searching for 
gold, made an unsuccessful attempt to found a settlement 
in the cold and barren region called Labrador. After a 
time, England and Spain drifted into war ; and while 
Elizabeth was queen of England, English sailors like 
Drake( § 15) were fighting the Spaniards on every sea. 
Most of these were little better than pirates. One brave 
and pious gentleman. Sir Humphrey Gilbert, saw that the 
American fisheries had more real value than any war 
could have ; and he undertook to make a settlement in 
Newfoundland. His first attempt (1578) was a failure; 
but he made another attempt, with five ships, five years 
afterward. His men were ungovernable, and he was 
compelled to return, taking for himself the smallest and 
weakest vessel of the five. A violent storm arose; 
Gilbert was besought to go on board of a larger vessel ; 
but he refused to desert his men, saying manfully, "We 
are as near heaven by sea as by land." So they left the 
Admiral, sitting at the stern of his vessel, "reading a 
book." During the night, the watchers on the other 
ships suddenly saw the lights of his vessel go out, and 
Sir Humphrey Gilbert disappeared from history. 

21. The Northwest Passage continued for a long time to 
be one of the great objects of the early English and 
Dutch voyages. The Portuguese claimed the sea-route 
from Europe to the East Indies, around Africa (§ 4). 
The Spaniards claimed the route around South America, 
which Magellan had discovered in 1520. It was supposed 
either that North America was not very broad, or that it 
was a collection of islands, like the West Indies, and the 
English hoped to find a passage for themselves through it 



i6 



y^T TEMPTS ^T SETTLEMENT 



[1540 



to the Pacific Ocean. In 1609, Hudson (§ 28) sailed up the 
river which bears his name until he ran aground, hoping 
every hour to sail out into the Pacific. In 1850, Captain 
McClure at last found a "northwest passage" through 
the Arctic Ocean, but the ice makes it useless (§ 783). 
Long before this, however, the Spaniards and Portuguese 
had been compelled to give up their asserted right to 
prevent ships of other nations from using the ocean route 
around Cape Horn and the Cape of Good Hope. 

22. Raleigh. — Brave men were plenty in England, and 
Gilbert's half-brother, Sir Walter Raleigh, next took 

up the work. Wonderful 
stories are told of Raleigh, 
of his wit, his learning, 
his never-failing courtesy, 
which made friends for 
him everywhere ; of the 
liking which Elizabeth 
had for him ; of the dislike 
which her successor. King 
James I., felt for him; of 
the manliness which he 
showed through thirteen 
years of imprisonment, 
and at his final execution. 
The common story is that 
he introduced into P^ngland, from the American Indians, 
the practice of smoking tobacco ; and that one of his 
servants, seeing him smoking and thinking him on fire, 
threw a pitcher of beer on him to put out the fire ; but 
it is quite certain that tobacco was used in England 
before Raleigh's time. He has, however, a better claim 
to our remembrance. He was the father of English 
colonization in America. He himself was never in 




Sir Walter Raleigh. 



i6o7] RALEIGH'S COLONIES i? 

North America ; but he made every effort to make settle- 
ments there; he talked and wrote of the importance of 
such settlements ; and he was the man who did most to 
set Englishmen thinking of it, and to prepare the way for 
final colonization. 

23. Raleigh's Colonies. — The colonies which Raleigh 
sent out landed on the coast of the present State of North 
Carolina. Two of his vessels found a place for a colony 
on Roanoke Island (1584). Raleigh named the whole 
coast Virginia, in honor of Queen Elizabeth, who was 
unmarried and was fond of being called the ' ' Virgin 
Queen," and the name is still given to a part of it, the 
present State of Virginia. A colony was sent out the 
next year, but careful preparation had not been made, 
and the colony was starved out in a year. Another 
colony was sent out under White (1587). It began well. 
White's granddaughter, Virginia Dare, the first child of 
English parents born within the present limits of the 
United States, was so named because the colonists 
believed that the great colony of Virginia had now been 
begun. No one knows what calamity happened ; but 
when the colony was searched for three years afterward, 
it had disappeared, and no trace of the hundred or more 
persons who perished was ever found. This failure ex- 
hausted Raleigh's money for the time. 

24. Bartholomew Gosnold, in 1602, found a new route 
across the Atlantic, by the Azores Islands, which saved 
1500 miles in distance. He made a settlement in what 
is now called Buzzard's Bay, in Massachusetts; but his 
men lost courage, and he returned with a ship-load of 
sassafras. At this time, more than a century after 
Columbus's discovery, there was not an English settler 
in all North America ; but English trading and fishing 
vessels were often seen along the coast, and their ac- 



1 8 ATTEMPTS AT SETTLEMENT 

counts of the country kept alive the English desire for 
American settlements. 

25. English Settlement took a new form in 1606, under 
King James I. Two great companies were formed, one 
at London, called the London Company, the other at 
Plymouth, called the Plymouth Company. To the 
London Company the king granted the coast of North 
America from latitude 34° to latitude 41°; that is, from 
about Cape Fear to the mouth of the Hudson River. To 
the Plymouth Company he gave the coast from latitude 
38° to 45°; that is, from the Rappahannock River to the 
eastern point of Maine. The coast between the Rappa- 
hannock and the Hudson was thus granted to both com- 
panies ; but neither was to fix a colony within 100 miles 
of any colony already planted by the other. There was 
no western boundary to the grants, which were supposed 
to extend across the continent to the Pacific Ocean. 

26. Successful Settlement began with the formation of the 
companies, the first successful colony being established at 
Jamestown in Virginia, in 1607 (§ 7^)- The first attempts 
had failed because of natural difficulties. A few people, 
placed in a wilderness, with 3000 miles of stormy ocean 
between them and help of any kind, and without protec- 
tion of any sort from hostile Indians, soon died from 
accident or disease, or were forced to return to England. 
But the new companies were richer, and were able to 
send out colonies large enough and well enough equipped 
to protect themselves from the beginning; and when 
this had been done, many of the difficulties disappeared. 
Every year a greater number of persons came to 
America, to get land for nothing and to escape poverty 
or persecution at home ; and it was not long before the 
coast was dotted with little settlements, and a few persons 
began to press inland. 



COLONIZATION OF THE UNITED STATES 



19 



27. The Colonization of the United States also begins 
with the formation of these companies. The territory 
granted to the companies was gradually cut up into 
separate colonies, and new colonies were formed to the 
southward. Thus there came to be, in time, thirteen 
English colonies, Virginia and Massachusetts being the 
remnants of the first grants to the two companies, after 
the other colonies had been cut out of them. In making 
these first grants, the king had been careful to avoid the 
territories of the Spaniards on the south, and the French 
on the north; and it thus happened that the English 
colonies in North America were planted near together, 
and within the present limits of the United States. The 
advantages of this were that it placed an enterprising and 
ambitious people in the best part of the continent, where 
the climate was neither too hot nor too cold ; and that it 
gave them the opportunity to unite in future and grow 
into a great nation. 

28. Holland had rebelled against Spain, about the time 
of the first English failures (§ 20), and had become a 
strong naval power. In 
1609, Henry Hudson, an 
Englishman in the service 
of Holland, discovered the 
Hudson River, and explored 
the coast as far as Chesa- 
peake Bay more closely than 
previous voyagers had done. 
Dutch traders at once sent 
vessels to Manhattan Island 
(now New York City), to 
trade with the Indians ; and 
in 1 62 1 , Holland granted the ~" 
territory from Delaware Bay "'''"''■ Hudson. 

to the Connecticut River to the Dutch West India Com- 




20 ATTEMPTS AT SETTLEMENT 

pany. This company established the city of New Amster- 
dam (now New York) in 1623, and called the whole 
territory New Netherland.^ For the next forty years, 
this continued to be a Dutch colony, set in between 
English colonies to the north and to the south of it. It 
was then conquered by the English (i^ 109). 

29. Sweden, without any claims by discovery, fixed a 
colony in what is now the State of Delaware, in 1638. 
Its leader was Peter Minuit, who had been a Dutch 
governor of New Netherland, but had gone over to the 
service of Sweden. The chief town of this colony was 
Christina, near the present city of Wilmington. In 1655, 
a Dutch force from New Amsterdam compelled the Swedes 
to acknowledge themselves uncier the government of 
Holland ; and the colony finally passed under English 
rule, with the rest of New Netherland (§ 109). It was 
later transferred to Penn (§ 121). 

30. Summary. — We have thus traced the steps by 
which England established her colonies on the Atlantic 
coast of North America. Spain had chosen the territory 
to the south, and France the territory to the north ; while 
the territory between them fell to PLngland. At first, 
England had Holland and Sweden as rivals ; but these 
were not strong enough to resist her ; and the whole At- 
lantic coast, from Florida to Nova Scotia, finally became 
English. The dates of the more important steps in the 
settlement are as follows: 

(Sp., Spanisli; E., English; F., French; D., Dutch; Sw., Swedish.) 
CANADA. 

1540 — Cartier (F. ) : Quebec (failure) § 18 

1 576 — Frobisher (E. ) : Labrador (failure) 20 

1 The price paid to the Indians by the Dutch for Manhattan Island was 
60 guilders (about $24). 



SUMMAR Y 21 



1583 — Gilbert (E. ): Newfoundland (failure) 20 

1605 — De Monts (F. ): Acadia, or Nova Scotia (success). 19 

1608 — Champlain (F. ): Quebec (success) 19 

(Here begins the French colonization of Canada, § 136.) 

THE UNITED STATES. 

1562 — South Carolina (F. ): Port Royal (failure) 18 

1564 — Florida (F.): Near St. Augustine (failure) 18 

1565 — Florida (Sp.) : St. Augustine (success) 17 

1582 — New Mexico (Sp. ) : Santa Fe (success) 17 

1585 — North Carolina (E. ): Roanoke Island (failure). ... 23 

1587 — North Carolina (E.): Roanoke Island (failure). ... 23 

1602 — Massachusetts (E.): Buzzard's Bay (failure) 24 

1607 — Virginia (E. ) : Jamestown (success) 26, 31 

(Here begins the English colonization of the United States.) 

1609 — New York (D. ) : Hudson's discovery 28 

1623 — New York (D.) : Dutch settlement (became English 

in 1664) 28 

1638 — Delaware (Sw. ): Swedish settlement (became Eng- 
lish in 1664) 29 

Topics for Further Study. 

1. The physical characteristics of the St. Lawrence valley. 

2. Raleigh's connection with exploring and colonizing 
schemes. 

3. The life of Cartier. 

Supplementary Reading. 

Narrative Accounts. — The general authorities are the same 
as for Chapter I., with the addition, for English attempts, of 
Palfrey's History of New England and Doyle's English 171 
America, vol. i., chaps. 4 and 5; and, for French attempts, of 
Parkman's Pioneers 0/ France and La Salle, and Winsor's Cartier 
to Frontenac and Mississippi Basin. The works of Winsor are 
very detailed. There are brief lives of Raleigh by Gosse and 
Creighton. 



CHAPTER III 

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ENGLISH COLONIZA- 
TION 

1607-1750 

31. The London Company (§25) sent out Captain Chris- 
topher Newport, with one hundred and twenty emigrants, 
to settle at Roanoke Island. A storm drove him out of his 
course and into Chesapeake Bay ; he discovered the James 
River, which he named in honor of James I. ; and about 
fifty miles from its mouth, on the northern bank of the 
river, he planted the settlement of Jamestown, in May, 
1607. This was the first successful English settlement 
within the present limits of the United States, and was 
the beginning of the colony of Virginia (§ y6).''- 

32. The Southern Colonies were in the end five in num- 
ber: Virginia, Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina, 
and Georgia. These were formed out of the grant to the 
London Company by the king through the following 
changes: (i) in 1632, the new colony of Maryland was 
formed out of the northeastern part of Virginia (§85); 
(2) in 1665, Charles II. took off the southern part of 
Virginia, the present State of North Carolina, added to 
it the present territory of South Carolina and Georgia, and 
called the whole Carolina; (3) in 1729, Carolina was 
divided into North Carolina and South Carolina (§ 92) ; 
(4) in 1732, the new colony of Georgia was formed out 
of South Carolina (§ 103). The London Company could 

ijamestown was destroyed in 1676, during Bacon's rebellion (§ 82). 

22 




EUROPEA?^" PROYINCES 
less 

French \ | Dutch | | 
Spanish ] I 

SCALE OF MILES 

100 200 300 



1\IEIV ENGLAND COLONIES 23 

make no objection to these changes, for in 1624 the king 
had taken away its charter and put an end to the com- 
pany, which, as he claimed, was not using its charter 
properly and faithfully. Florida was not an English 
colony until 1763 (§ 154); nor a part of the United States 
until 1 819 (§ 414). The names of the first four English 
colonies on the southern coast were all royal : Virgi)iia, 
from Elizabeth, the virgin queen; Maryland, from Hen- 
rietta Maria, Charles I.'s queen; Carolina, from Charles 
II. of England; and Georgia, from George II. of Eng- 
land. 

33, The New England Colonies. — The Plymouth Com- 
pany (§25) attempted to make a settlement in 1607, 
near the mouth of the Kennebec River, in Maine ; but it 
was a failure, and the company made no more settlements 
on its own account. In 1620, a new company Avas formed, 
known as the "Council for New England." To this 
company the king gave the territory between north lati- 
tude 40° and 48°; that is, from about Philadelphia to the 
northern point of Maine. Almost the only work done by 
this company was to grant lands to various other colonies ; 
and in 1635 it also gave back its powers to the king.^ 
The New England Colonies, formed from the original 
Plymouth Company's grant, were at first seven : Plymouth, 
Massachusetts Bay, Connecticut, New Haven, Providence, 
Rhode Island, and New Hampshire. Plymouth was 
afterward united with Massachusetts Bay, New Haven 
with Connecticut, and Providence with Rhode Island. 
There were thus finally four New England colonies: 
Massachusetts Bay (§ 48), New Hampshire (§ 55), Con- 
necticut (§ 57), and Rhode Island (§ 63). ^ 

^ The name New England was given to this coast in 1614 by Captain 
John Smith (§ 77). 

"^ Maine was a part of Massachusetts until i8;o. Vermont was claimed 
by New Hampshire and New York (§ 65). 



24 GENERyiL CHARACTERISTICS OF ENGLISH COLONIZATION 

34. The Middle Colonies, New York, New Jersey, Penn- 
sylvania, and Delaware, were for the most part conquered 
soil, taken from the Dutch (§ 28). Neither of the two 
great companies attempted to colonize this part of the 
coast, and it did not come into English possession until 
1664. 

35. *The Governments of the English colonies were not 
all alike, and some had different forms of government at 
different times. Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Con- 
necticut had royal charters, written documents giving the 
colonists the right to elect their own officers and manage 
their own affairs. Virginia was also a charter colony 
until 1624. Pennsylvania (including Delaware), Mary- 
land, and Carolina were given by the king to proprietors 
or owners, who formed governments in them, and ap- 
pointed the governors and some other officers. But even 
in these proprietary colonies the people largely controlled 
their political affairs. New Hampshire, New York, and 
New Jersey were royal colonies, ruled through governors 
appointed by the king. Virginia became a royal colony 
in 1624, and Carolina in 17 19. The charter of Georgia, 
granted in 1732 to trustees, was surrendered to the king 
in 1752, and the colony became a royal province. 

36. The Colonies in General were at first little interfered 
with by the king, who considered them more often as an 
annoyance than as an honor or a benefit. Thus the 
colonies, even those which had no charters, obtained the 
power to elect assemblies,^ which made the laws for the 
colonies. The governors sent out by the king had the 
power to forbid the passage of any law which seemed to 
them wrong or un\\ise ; but the governors were far from 
England, and for a long time interfered very little. Thus 

1 The first representative assembly in America met in Virginia in 1619 
(§ 76). 



GOVERNMENT OF THE NEIV COUNTRY 25 

it came to pass that the colonies really governed them- 
selves almost from the beginning. But all of them 
acknowledged the same king, and were parts of the 
British Empire. Their inhabitants were Englishmen, who 
moved, when they wished, from one colony to another, 
without any notion that they were going to a foreign 
country. English colonization really gave the king of 
England a new country to govern. 

37. The New Country was not like the old one, how- 
ever, though both had the same king, laws, and language, 
and many of the same customs. England had a class of 
nobles who helped to make the laws simply because they 
had been born in particular families, and without being 
elected ; but there was no such class in the colonies. In 
England, only a very few men had the power to vote for 
members of the Parliament which made English laws; in 
the colonies, almost all men had the power to vote for 
members of the assemblies which made their laws. In 
England, there were a few rich men and many poor men, 
a few educated men and many ignorant men ; in the 
colonies there were few who were either very poor or very 
rich, and few who could not at least read and write. 

38. These Differences made it much more difficult for 
the king to govern both countries well, for the laws which 
suited one of them were quite unsuited to the other. But 
the kings of England seem not to have understood this. 
England was their own country, and they were familiar 
with it; America was far away, and they knew little 
about it. It was therefore difficult for the king, when it 
was necessary for him to interfere in the government of 
America, to know what was best for that country; and 
there were many cases of bad government in all the 
colonies, because the king was not able to judge their 
needs wisely. As the colonies grew richer, these inter- 



26 GENERAL CH A R/iCT ERISTICS OF ENGLISH COLONIZATION 

ferences became more troublesome, until in 1776 the 
colonies broke away from England altogether (§ 205). 

39. Negro Slavery in the colonies was one of the worst 
of these cases of bad judgment. The first mention of it 
is in Virginia, in 1619, Avhen a Dutch man-of-war 
exchanged some negro slaves for provisions. Negroes 
were soon held as slaves in all the colonies, though they 
increased most rapidly in the warmer southern colonies. 
Labor is the most important thing in a state. But, where 
laborers are generally known as slaves, no free man likes 
to labor, because there labor is thought to degrade the 
laborer to the level of a slave. A wiser government would 
therefore have forbidden slavery in the colonies : but the 
king of England not only did not forbid it, but became an 
active partner in the slave-trade, and refused to allow the 
colonies to forbid it. Thus the southern colonies came to 
believe that slavery and slave labor were absolutely 
necessary to them. But at that time there was no general 
feeling, as there is now, that slavery not only had a bad 
effect upon the industry of a country, but was also morally 
wrong. 

40. European Affairs. — While English settlement in 
America was going on, between the years 1600 and 
1690, great events were taking place. in Europe; and it is 
necessary to bear them in mind while studying the next 
period, for they had a great influence on the history of the 
English colonies in America. ■ In England the powers of 
government were divided between the king, the House of 
Lords (hereditary nobles, § 37), and the House of Com- 
mons (elected by a part of the people). The two Houses 
together were called the Parliament; and this body had 
little by little gained for itself the power of taxing the 
people. When Queen Elizabeth died (1603), and a new 
king, James L, came from Scotland, Parliament became 



EUROPEAN AFFAIRS 27 

bolder in declaring its power. James, and still more his 
son, Charles I., resisted the claim, and even attempted at 
times to govern and lay taxes without calling the Parlia- 
ment together. But the people refused to pay such taxes, 
and the king was repeatedly compelled to call the Parlia- 
ment together and ask for money. Then the Parliament 
refused to lay taxes unless the king would give up other 
powers which were considered objectionable. 

41. The Commonwealth and the Protectorate In 1642, 

the quarrel broke out into open war. The Parliament was 
successful, defeated and captured the king, Charles I., 
and in 1649 beheaded him as a traitor and tyrant. Oliver 
Cromwell, the leader of the Parliamentary army, soon 
afterward became ruler of England, with the title of Lord 
Protector, and held power until his death in 1658. This 
period is usually called, in English history, the period of 
the Commonwealth and the Protectorate. The king's 
friends were often called Cavaliers, and the supporters of 
the Commonwealth Puritans or Roundheads, the latter 
name being given because they cut their hair short, while 
the Cavaliers wore long, curling wigs. 

42. The Restoration. — In 1660, the people, tired of the 
Protectorate and the rule of the army, called back 
Charles I.'s son, who had been living in exile, and made 
him king, with the title of Charles II. In 1685, he was 
succeeded by his brother, who had been Duke of York, 
but was now called James II. He endeavored, as 
Charles I. had done, to rule by his own will. In 1688, 
his subjects rebelled, drove him and his son away to 
France, and called in his son-in-law and daughter, 
William of Orange and Mary, as king and queen. This 
event is commonly called the English Revolution of 1688. 

43. In France, events took an exactly opposite course. 
Louis XIII. in 161 4 got rid of the body which had made 



28 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ENGLISH COLONIZATION 

laws, and the French kings ruled by their own will until 
the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789 (§ 305). 
In 1685, a religious persecution was begun in France, and 
drove many of the Protestants, commonly called Hugue- 
nots, out of that kingdom. Many of these came to 
America. 

44. The American Colonies were very much neglected 
under James I. and Charles I. ; they enjoyed great free- 
dom from interference under the Commonwealth; and 
they were subjected to great annoyances and interferences 
under Charles II., and still more under James II. (§ 70). 
But all through the early part of the century, the troubles 
in England were driving great numbers of people across 
the Atlantic, and increasing the population of the colonies 
very rapidly. The population grew from nothing in 1600 
to about 200,000 in 1700. 

The following are the leading European events referred to: 

1 603-1 62 5 : Reign of James I. 

1625-1649: Reign of Charles I. (son of James I.). 

1640: The fifth Parliament of the reign meets. 

1642: War breaks out. Battle of Edgehill. 

1645 : Battle of Naseby. The king captured. 

1649: The king beheaded. 

1 649-1 660: The Commonwealth. 

1653: Cromwell is made Lord Protector. 

1658: Death of Cromwell. 

1660: Restoration. 



1660-1685 
1685-1689 
1689-1702 



Reign of Charles II. (son of Charles I.). 
Reign of lames II. (son of Charles I.). 
Reign of William and Mary. 

Topics for Further Study. 



1. The early colonial policy of England. 

2. The meaning of " the rights of Englishmen," as applied 
to the American colonists. 

3. The government of a proprietary colony {e.g., Maryland). 

4. A comparison between a southern colony {e.g., Virginia) 



SUPPLEMENTARY READING 29 

and a northern colony {e.g., New York) in the matter of the 
condition and treatment of slaves. 

Supplementary Reading. 

Narrative Accounts. — For references on the several colonies 
see under Chapters IV., V., and VI., posi. The course of 
events in England may be conveniently followed in Gardiner's 
Student's History of E7igland. Seeley's Expansioti of Englatid, 
Lectures i.-vii., is a brilliant discussion of English colonial 
experience. 



CHAPTER IV 

THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES ; 

1620-1750 

(i) MassacJinsctts Bay Colony. 

45. The Plymouth Colony occupied the irregular south- 
eastern portion of the present State of Massachusetts. 
The region was settled by a company of ' ' Separatists, 
as they were called, who separated themselves from the 
worship of the church estabhshed by law in England. 
They had been persecuted in England under James I. and 
Charles I. ; and many of them fled to Holland, where 
they found peace. After a time, a number of them 
who had settled in Leyden set sail for New Amsterdam 
(New York), in order to settle there in the possessions 
of the Dutch. Storms drove their ship, the Mayflo%vcr, 
from her course, and they landed, about one hundred in 
number, in the present State of Massachusetts, at Ply- 
mouth. The date of the landing was December 2i, 
1620.^ 

46. The Pilgrims, as the colonists called themselves, 
suffered greatly during the winter, and half of their 
number died. They had been too poor to provide many 
of the comforts necessary for a new settlement ; they did 
not find a fertile soil ; and there seemed little chance of 

' Tlie rock on which they are said to liave hinded is still seen, and is 
called Plymouth Rock, or Forefathers' Rock. Captain John Smith (§ 33, 
note) had already named the spot riyniouth. 

30 



THE PILGRIMS 



31 



getting rich by trading. Other settlers followed, how- 
ever, and the little colony held its ground. It had no 
charter, but governed itself at first under a covenant, or 
agreement, made by the Pilgrims in the cabin of the 
Mayflcnvc}'. This covenant has generally been held to 




The Mayflower. 

mark the beginning of that tendency toward democracy 
which finally prevailed in all the English colonies. It 
was in Virginia that the first Assembly was held ; but the 
Assembly was convened by the governor under the 
authority of the Virginia Company, and the control of it 
was mainly in the hands of the \\'ealthier planters; while 
the Pilgrims acted on their own responsibility, and had 
regard to rich and poor alike. The history of Plymouth, 
until its union with the Massachusetts Bay colony in 1691, 
was in the main uneventful. The colony was never a 
large one ; but it opened the way for the emigration to 
New England of a great number of other persons who 
were opposed to the Church of England and the king, and 
did much to give New England a character of its own. 



32 THE NEIV ENGLAND COLONIES 

47. The Leaders of the Pilgrims were John Robinson, 
Miles Standish, John Carver, and William Bradford. 
Robinson was their minister in Holland, but did not 
accompany them to America. Standish was an old 
soldier, and the colony's military leader. He was "a 
man of a very small stature, yet of a very hot and angry 
temper," and was much dreaded by the Indians. On 
one occasion, he stabbed a hostile chief in the midst of his 
tribe. Carver was the first governor. He died during 
the first winter. Bradford was chosen in his place, and 
was re-elected yearly for about thirty years, until his 
death. The only years in which he was not re-elected 
were those in which, "by importunity, he got off" 

48. The Massachusetts Bay Colony comprised the north- 
ern part of the present State of Massachusetts. ^ It was 
founded by Puritans, who had not altogether separated 
from the Church of England, but disliked some of its 
ceremonies. They sided with the Parliament against the 
king and the Cavaliers, and were persecuted as the 
Separatists had been. In 1628, a company of them 
bought their territory from the Council of Plymouth, and 
sent out a colony which settled at Salem. The next 
year, Charles I. gave them a charter, and they sent out 
more colonists, who settled at Salem and Charlestown. 
In 1630, a highly important step was taken. The com- 
pany itself moved over to America, with its officers, 
charter, and all its powers; and thus the Puritans obtained 
a colony of their own in America, with little real depend- 
ence upon England. 

49. The Population of the colony increased rapidly. 
In 1630, John Winthrop and 1500 others came from 

' In the charters the name is variously spelled Massachusetts, Matta- 
chusetts, and Massathusetts. It is an Indian word, and is said to mean 
"blue hills." 



MASSACHUSETTS LEADERS 



33 



England and settled Boston, Cambridge, Lynn, and other 
towns. For a few years the new settlers suffered severely 
from cold, hunger, and other hardships, but not so much 
as the Plymouth settlers had suffered ten years before. 
The Massachusetts Bay settlers were richer, and had 




Governor John Winthrop. 

brought more supplies. There were more Puritans than 
Separatists in England, and so there were more emigrants 
to Massachusetts Bay than to the rest of New England. 
The men brought mone}' and laboring power ; the people 
worked hard ; and Massachusetts Bay soon became one 
of the most prosperous of the colonies. 

50. The Leaders of this colony were John Endicott, 
John Winthrop, Sir Henry Vane, John Cotton, Thomas 
Hooker, Samuel Stone, and a great number of other 
ministers. Endicott was a rigid Puritan, who at one time 
cut the cross out of the British flag in the colony, and 



34 THE NEIV ENGLAND COLONIES 

compelled the women to wear veils at church, and the 
men to cut their hair short. Winthrop was an English 
lawyer, a highly educated man, and more gentle than 
Endicott in his religious feeling. Vane was rich, able, 
and accomplished, and was elected governor when only 
twenty-four years old. He returned to England, helped 
to overthrow the king, opposed Cromwell, and was 
beheaded after the restoration. The last three named 
above were able ministers ; and the colonists said that 
God had given them " Cotton for their clothing, Hooker 
for their fishing, and Stone for their building. 

51. Religious Feeling marked most of the New England 
colonists. They had fled from religious persecution in the 
old world, and in the new world they made the building 
of churches, the founding of religious schools, and the 
preaching of the gospel a great part of their work. In 
Massachusetts Bay, particularly, they were determined to 
found a religious state. Their ministers were their leading 
men, and for many years no one could vote unless he was 
a member of the church. They dealt harshly with men 
of other religious beliefs who came to the colony and 
annoyed them by disputing with the Puritan ministers. 
Roger Williams held objectionable views on religious 
liberty and on the relation of the colony to the crown. 
He was ordered to leave the colony; and, fleeing from 
Massachusetts, he went into the wilderness and founded 
the colony of Rhode Island (§ 62). Afterwards, in 1637, 
Mrs. Anne Hutchinson and her followers were banished 
for teaching new religious doctrines. She also went to 
Rhode Island, and thence to New Netherland, where she 
was killed in a night attack by the Indians. 

52. The Quakers gave the New England colonists most 
trouble, for they insisted on freedom of worship, and dis- 
obeyed the laws which forbade preaching by any but 



THE SALEM IVITCHCRAFT 



35 



Puritan ministers. They were often guilty of extravagant 
conduct. They persisted in entering Puritan meetings 
and arguing with the ministers, and were punished in 
various ways. In 1656, a law was passed that any 




Site of Boston in 1620. 

Quaker who returned to the colony after banishment 
should be put to death. The king stopped the execution 
of the law after the restoration ; but it shows the spirit of 
the times. 

53. The Salem Witchcraft. — Before this spirit of religious 
persecution died away, the colony was shaken by the de- 
lusion known as the Salem witchcraft. Most people at the 
time, and the Puritans as strongly as others, believed that 
there were witches, who had received power from the 
devil to hurt or kill men and cattle. Both Massachusetts 
and Connecticut had made laws against witchcraft, and had 
hanged a number of persons for being witches. In 1692, 
the whole town of Salem became crazed with the belief 
that witches were at work there. Two silly or wicked 
little girls declared that different persons had taken the 
form of black cats or black dogs, and had bitten, pinched, 
and choked them. The people believed them, and 
even the great minister of the colony, Cotton Mather, 
supported them. The supposed witches were punished 
with religious fury; and wicked people seized the oppor- 
tunity to charge their enemies with being witches. Before 
the terror died away, about twenty innocent people, 



36 



THE NEIV ENGLAND COLONIES 



mostly old women and Indians, had been put to death. 
Finall)', the magistrates and people came to their senses; 
and punishments for witchcraft were stopped. 

54. The Colonies United. — The New England colonists 
sided with the Parliament against the king; and during 




<^ 



^ 



Massachusetis Bay Colony. 

the Commonwealth period the 
-y Massachusetts Bay Colony was al- 

lowed to take possession of all the rest 
of New England to the north ; and this 
new territory was left to the colony for some 
years after the restoration. In 1684, the king's 
judges declared the Massachusetts charter at an end ; 
and James II. attempted to make the whole of New 
England one royal colony (>$ 70), when he was driven 
from the throne in 1689. The new sovereigns, William 
and Mary, instead of restoring the old charter, granted a 
new charter in 1691. It united the colonies of Plymouth 
and Massachusetts Ba}', the province of Maine, and the 
territory of Nova Scotia, into one colony, by the name of 
Massachusetts Bay ; and made New Hampshire a separate 



NEIV HAMPSHIRE 



37 



colony (§ 56). But the right to elect the governor was 
taken from the people, and all religions except the Roman 
Catholic were to be permitted. The colony remained 
under this charter until the colonies finally rebelled against 
Great Britain (^ 188). 

(2) Xc70 HmupsJiirc. 

55. New Hampshire was John Mason's share of a tract 
of land granted to him and Sir Ferdinando Gorges, in 
1622, by the Council of Ph'mouth (§ t^-}^). The grant 
covered the territory between the Merrimac and Kennebec 
rivers. Small settlements were made at Portsmouth and 
Dover, in 1623; and in 1629, the proprietors divided their 
grant. Mason named his share New Hampshire, from 
his own county of Hampshire, in England. 

56. The Colony was for years hardly more than a 
few fishing villages. In 1641, it 
joined Massachusetts ; but the 
king separated them in 1679, 
and made New Hampshire a royal 
colony. In 1688, the colony 
again joined Massachusetts ; and 
in 1 69 1, the king again separated 
them (§ 54). New Hampshire 
then remained a royal colony until 
the colonies rebelled against Great 
Britain (§ 188). It never was a 
large colony ; its interior settle- 
ments were farming townships ; 
and its history was uneventful. 

(3) Coiuiccticut. 

57. The Connecticut Colony consisted of the territory 
now within the State of Connecticut, with the exception 




SCALE OF MILES. 



New Hamfshire Colony. 



38 



THE NEIV ENGLAND COLONIES 



of the few townships, on the shore of Long Island Sound, 
which formed the New Haven colony (§ 60). It is said 
to have been granted in 1630 to the Earl of Warwick by 
the Council of Plymouth (§ 33). In 1631, Warwick 
transferred it to Lord Say, Lord Brooke, and others. In 
1635, they made a settlement, which they called Say- 
brook, at the mouth of the Connecticut River, but made 
no further attempts to colonize. Their claims were after- 
ward purchased by the Connecticut settlers. 

58. Settlement had already been begun by immigrants 
from Massachusetts, without permission of the proprietors. 
Their principal leader was Thomas Hooker (§ 50). They 
travelled on foot through the Massachusetts wilderness to 
the Connecticut River, driving their cattle before them, 




SCALE OF MILES 



10 20 -10 Ml 

Connecticut Colony. 



and sometimes living chiefly on milk. They settled the 
towns of Wcthersfield in 1634, Windsor in 1635, and 
Hartford in 1636. In 1639, they formed the first written 
constitution in America, and took the name of the Con- 
necticut colony. Saybrook joined them ; new towns were 
settled ; and they retained their separate government 
throughout the Commonwealth period. 



CONNECTICUT AND NElV HA^EN 39 

59. The Early History of the Connecticut colony was 
not very eventful. The principal Indian difficulties were 
with the Pequots, a powerful tribe of eastern Connecticut. 
In 1637, the settlers made war on the tribe, surrounded 
the Indians in their fort near Groton, and killed many of 
them. Another defeat near Fairfield put an end to the 
tribe: its members joined other tribes, or were sold as 
slaves. The Dutch in New Netherland claimed the terri- 
tory up to the Connecticut River; but this dispute was 
settled in 1650 by a treaty at Hartford, fixing the boun- 
dary between Connecticut and New Netherland (New 
York) very nearly as at present. 

60. The New Haven Colony was settled in 1638, by a 
company of English immigrants, under Rev. John Daven- 
port and Theophilus Eaton, who bought lands from the 
Indians. Other settlers followed them and formed new 
towns near by, on the shore of Long Island Sound. In 
1639, these towns united under the name of the New 
Haven Colony. There were thus two colonies within the 
present State of Connecticut, neither of them having a 
royal charter; and each tried to gain to itself the new 
towns as they were formed. These, however, generally 
preferred to go into the Connecticut colony, for New 
Haven, like Massachusetts Bay, allowed no one but 
members of the church to vote or hold office (§ 51). 

61. The Colonies United. — In 1660, when the Common- 
wealth came to an end in England, and Charles II. was 
recalled, the Connecticut colony, the stronger of the 
two, set about to obtain a charter. The governor, 
Winthrop, was at once sent to England for that purpose. 
In 1662, he obtained a charter covering the territory of 
both colonies. It allowed the people to elect their 
governor as well as their assembly, and practically to 
ijovern themselves. It suited them so well that it re- 



40 



THE NEIV ENGLAND COLONIES 



[1620 



maincd in force after the Revolution, and until 1818. 
New Haven unwillingly accepted the charter, and in 
1665 the two colonies were united under the name of 
the Colony of Connecticut. In 1687, Andros (§ 70) 
appeared at Hartford and demanded the charter. While 
the argument was going on in the evening, the lights, 
so the story goes, were suddenly blown out; and before 
they could be relighted, the charter had been taken out 




-i t^iitVwtei/z 






^ ^x^(>' 






Charter Oak. 

and hidden near by, in a hollow oak-tree. When 
William and Mary came to the throne in 1689, the 
charter was brought out again, and the government went 
on as before until the Revolution (§ 204). The tree in 
which the charter is said to have been hidden, called the 
Charter Oak, stood and was well cared for until it was 
blown down in a storm in 1856. The early division into 
two colonies was long marked by the fact that Connecti- 
cut had two capitals, Hartford and New Haven. Since 
1873 Hartford has been the sole capital. 



175°] RHODE ISLAND 41 

(4) Rhode Island. 

62. Roger Williams, after he had been driven from 
Massachusetts (§ 51), took refuge among the Indians at 
the head of Narragansett Bay. In 1636, their chief, 
Canonicus, sold him a large tract of land, which Williams 
called Providence, in remembrance of the manner in 
which he felt that God had guided him thither. Others 
followed him, and settled on the large island in the bay, 
called Rhode Island. Portsmouth, in the northern part 
of the island, was settled in 1638, and Newport in 1639. 
These two colonies, or "plantations," were separate for 
several years, having no charter, and governing them- 
selves. In 1643, a third and smaller colon)^ was founded 
at Warwick, on the western shore of the bay. 

63. A Charter was obtained by Williams in 1643 from 
Parliament, which gave liberal rights of government, but 
did not confirm the title of the colonists to the land. 
In 1663, a new charter was obtained from Charles II. 
The different settlements were now gathered inio one 
colony, under the name of Rhode Island and Providence 
Plantations. The people were to elect their own gover- 
nor, assembly, and other officers, and govern themselves. 
The charter suited the people so well that they kept it in 
force after the Revolution, and until 1842 (§ 513).' 

64. The Early History of Rhode Island was marked by 
frequent controversies, fortunately bloodless, as the laws 
were tolerant. All religious denominations were per- 
mitted, and the colony became a place of refuge for those 
who were persecuted elsewhere. There were few troubles 
with the Indians, but often vigorous disputes with the 
neighboring colonies. Plymouth, on the east, claimed 

1 For the attempt of Andros to destroy tlie charter, see § 70. 



42 THE NEIV ENGLAND COLONIES [1620 

the territory up to the eastern shore of the bay. Con- 
necticut, on the west, claimed the territory up to the 
western ' shore of the bay. Massachusetts claimed the 
northern part of the colony. These claims would have 



ir 10 20 40 

Rhode Island Colony. 



left only the islands in the bay to the little colony. 
Rhode Island resisted stubbornly, and succeeded, in 1741 
and 1752, in fixing its boundaries as at present.^ 

(5) Vcniiont. 
65. Vermont was part of the grant to the Duke of York 
(see Map. p. 78), like western Connecticut and Massa- 
chusetts. The grant was given up as to the two latter 
colonies; and so, about 1750, New Hampshire claimed 
Vermont and sold it to settlers. For this reason Vermont 
was long known as the ' ' New Hampshire Grants. ' ' New 
York urged a claim to it, and attempted to make the 
people pay for their land again. The Green Mountam 

1 The legal name is still "The State of Rhode Island and rrovidence 
Plantations;" and the State retains its two capitals, Providence and New- 
port, the legislature meeting in them alternately. 



175°] f^ElV ENGLAND CONFEDERATION 43 

Boys, as the settlers called themselves, treated the New 
York officers very roughly, and formed a government of 
their own. At first they called it New Connecticut, and 
then Vermont, a French word meaning Green Mountains. 
They kept up this separate government throughout the 
Revolution. Vermont had little to do with the other 
colonies during the colonial period, and remained practi- 
cally independent, save for its controversy with New 
Hampshire and New York, throughout the Revolutionary 
War. 

(6) N'cw England in General. 

66.* New England Confederation — In 1643, the colonies 
of Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New 
Haven formed a confederacy, under the name of " The 
United Colonies of New England." By the articles of 
union which were drawn up and agreed to, each colony 
was to be represented by two commissioners, who were 
empowered to meet and decide on questions of peace and 
war, and on a few other matters of common interest. So 
far as its own affairs were concerned, each colony con- 
tinued to govern itself No colony was to engage in war, 
unless attacked, without the consent of the others, and 
the expenses and profits of the war were to be shared by 
the members of the confederation. Rhode Island, whose 
territory was claimed by the other colonies, was refused 
admission. The practical importance of the New England 
Confederation came to an end in 1662, when Connecticut 
and New Haven were united (§61); but it had showed 
the colonies the advantage of joint action, and was a step 
in the direction of more permanent union. 

67. The Navigation Acts. — At first, the colonists every- 
where were busied only in agriculture, hunting, and fish- 
ing. As they grew richer, they turned to manufactures, 



44 THE NHIV ENGLAND COLONIES [1620 

ship-building, and commerce, and their asscmbHes offered 
to grant money to persons who would engage in such 
pursuits. This was not at all pleasant to English 
merchants, who wished to keep the trade of the colonies 
in their own hands. In 1651, Parliament passed the first 
of what were called the Navigation Acts. These laws 
forbade the colonies to trade with any other country than 
England, or to receive foreign ships into their ports. 
They were particularly aimed at New England, whose 
people had gone eagerly into commerce ; but they were 
not well enforced for many years (see also § 80). ^ The 
revenue officers were careless, or took bribes to allow 
vessels to trade with foreign countries ; and thus most 
of the Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut 
merchants were compelled to be smugglers, and to engage 
in trade that was forbidden by law. About a hundred 
years after the passage of these laws, the attempt was at 
last made to enforce them in earnest; and this, as will be 
seen, helped to bring about the Revolution (§ 169). 

68. The Indians soon saw very plainly that the white 
strangers were driving them awa}' from the coast and out 
of their ancient possessions. One of them, Philip, chief 
of the Wampanoags, a Rhode Island tribe, was bold 
enough to strike a blow for his race. He travelled 
through New England until he had united the Indians 
from Maine to the Hudson River in a league against the 
English. The war broke out in June, 1675. The Indians 
attacked Swansea, Massachusetts, and killed a number of 
persons; and, almost at the same time, similar attacks 
were made on the villages all along the frontier. The 
towns of western Massachusetts suffered most severely. 

' As a part of the same system, various acts of Parliament forbade tlie 
transportation of manufactures, such as wool, iron, paper, hats, and leather, 
from colony to colony. These laws were also evaded. 



175°] KING PHILIP'S IV AR 45 

69. King Philip's War lasted for nearly two years. 
About thirteen towns were destroyed ; many others 
were attacked ; about six hundred whites were killed in 
battle ; and an unknown number perished by massacre or 
starvation. The most severe battle, called "the swamp 
fight," took place in December, 1675. It was fought by 
Massachusetts, Plymouth, and Connecticut troops, who 
surrounded and captured a Narragansett fort, in a swamp 
near Kingston, Rhode Island, and slaughtered its 
defenders. The colonies were too strong for the Indians. 
Philip was driven out of one place after another ; and in 
August, 1676, he was finally hunted down to his principal 
residence at Mount Hope, near Bristol, Rhode Island. 
Here he was surrounded by a force under Benjamin 
Church, a Plymouth Indian-fighter. In attempting to 
break through and escape, Philip was shot and killed. 
His men were killed or sold into slavery, and the power 
of the New England Indians was broken forever. 

70. The Andros Government. — It has already been said 
that the colonies were subjected to great annoyances under 
James II. This was particularly the case with the New 
England colonies. The king was vexed to know that 
they were governing themselves under their charters, and 
determined to show that he was their master. The 
English courts had already decided that the Massachusetts 
charter was void (§ 54) ; and Sir Edmund Andros, who 
had lately been governor of New York, was appointed 
governor of New England, with orders from the king to 
demand the charters of the colonies. He landed at 
Boston in December, 1686, and Massachusetts submitted 
to him for the time. He then went, in 1687, to Hartford 
and Newport. The charter of Connecticut disappeared 
(§61), and the charter of Rhode Island could not be 
found; but he declared both governments at an end. 



46 I HE NEIV ENGLAND COLONIES [1620 

The colonists hated him, for he governed harshly and 
tyrannically. But his service pleased the king, who added 
New York and New Jersey to his government the next 
year. Early in 1689, when rumors of the English revo- 
lution reached New England, he was seized at Boston by 
the people, and sent back to England. Connecticut and 
Rhode Island were allowed to resume their old charters, 
but the charter of Massachusetts was not restored, although 
the colony received a new charter in 1691 (§ 54). The 
new government in England sent Andros back again to 
America as governor of Virginia. 

71. Early French Wars. — When James II. and his son 
were driven from England, the king of France received 
them and gave them help. For this and other reasons, 
France and England were frequently at war for the next 
seventy years, and the French and English colonies in 
America took part in the wars. The first three of these 
were called, from the names of the English rulers, King 
William's War (1689-1697), Queen Anne's War (1702- 
171 3), and King George's War (i 744-1 748). In Amer- 
ica they were waged mainly by New England and 
New York against Canada; and the southern colonies 
took little part in them. But the treaties which ended all 
these wars agreed that each party should give back its 
conquests, except that, at the end of Queen Anne's War, 
England kept Port Royal and Nova Scotia. This was 
the only gain to the colonies from any of these wars. 

72. The French Strongholds were four: Montreal and 
Quebec in Canada; Port Royal (now Annapolis), a fine 
harbor in Nova Scotia (or Acadia) ; and Louisburg, a 
strong fortress on the southeast coast of Cape Breton 
Island. The New-P^nglanders were most anxious to 
capture Port Royal and Louisburg, which were especially 
dancferous to their fishing-vessels on the Newfoundland 



175°] 



FRENCH AND INDIAN IVARS 



47 



banks. In 1690, Massachusetts sent an expedition under 
Sir William Phips, which captured Port Royal ; but the 
place was given up at the end of the war. In 1710, Port 
Royal was captured again, after one failure, and this time 
it was kept. In 1745, the New England colonies united 




ICO 200 400 600 

Early French Wars. 



and captured Louisburg, with the assistance of a British 
fleet ; but this was given back at the end of the war. 
Several land expeditions were made against Montreal and 
Quebec, but they were entirely unsuccessful (§ 151). 

73. The Indians in western New York and Canada took 
the side of the French, for the French were always more 
successful than the English in gaining the liking of the 
Indians. Thus the whole frontier was kept in alarm. 
The secret and savage fashion in which the Indians, often 
under the lead of French officers, attacked the border 
towns, and killed the people or carried them as captives 
to Canada, embittered the colonists against the French as 
well as the Indians, and united them in the final French 
and Indian war (§ 143).^ 

^ The "Five Nations" of Indians, afterward called the "Six Nations'' 
(§3), joined the English at first, but usually refused to take part in the 



48 THE NEfV ENGLAND COLONIES [1620 

74. Growth of New England. — No one can do anything 
more than guess at the population of the colonies before 
the first census of the United States was taken in 1790 
(§ 312). We can only know that, after the colonies were 
fairly settled, the population of most of them doubled 
about once in thirty years. In 171 5, British officials 
estimated the population of this section at 161,650.^ In 
1750, New England contained probably about 430,000 
persons. 

75. The People had been made a thrifty and hardy race 
by constant struggles against a severe climate. They had 
not only agriculture, but ships, commerce, and fisheries, 
and had begun to introduce manufactures. None of them 
were very rich, and few were very poor. They were 
accustomed to govern themselves in their towns and in 
accordance with the terms of their charters. They were 
therefore always ready to resist any attempt to take away 
the smallest of their privileges ; and the royal officials 
found no part of America so hard to manage as New 
England. Education was very general. The first two 
of the present colleges in America were founded in New 
England: Harvard, at Cambridge, in Massachusetts, in 
1636; and Yale, at New Haven, in Connecticut, in 1700. 
Both negroes and Indians were held as slaves in this 
section ; but the climate was not favorable to slavery, and 
the system showed no signs of increase. 

Topics for Further Study. 

1. Town government in New England. 

2. The New England Confederation. 

^ The population in 1715 was supposed to be divided as follows: Massa- 
chusetts, 96,000; New Hampshire, 9,650; Connecticut, 17,000; Rhode 
Island, 9,000. In 1750: Massachusetts, 210,000; New Hampshire, 50,000; 
Rhode Island. 40,000; Cc^mccticut, 135,000. 



175°] SUPPLEMENTARY READING 49 

3. The Dutch in Connecticut. 

4. Life in a typical New England town in the seventeenth 
century. 

5. History of the first Massachusetts charter. 

6. Treatment of Roger Williams by IMassachusetts. 

Supplementary Reading. 

Sources. — The principal charters and grants are in Mac- 
Donald's Select Charters, Nos. 4, 7, 8, 10, 11, 13, 15, 18, 24, 
27, and 42; the same volume contains the Mayflower Compact 
(No. 5), the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut (No. 14), the 
Fundamental Articles of New Haven (No. 16), the scheme of 
government for New Haven (No. 20), the Massachusetts Body 
of Liberties (No. 17), the Articles of the New England Con- 
federation (No. 19), and extracts from the Navigation Acts 
(Nos. 22, 23, 25, 28, 34, and 43). Hart's Amen'caft History 
told by Contemporaries, vol. i., chaps. 14-21, gives well-chosen 
extracts, from contemporary sources, illustrating social and 
economic conditions in the several colonies. 

Narrative Accounts. — The best brief work is Fiske's Be- 
ginnings of Neiv England. Lodge's Short History of the English 
Colonies in America, chaps. 18-22, is valuable, but more detailed. 
Eggleston's Beginners of a Nation, bk. 11., chaps. 1-4, bk. iii., 
chaps, 2 and 3, is brilliantly written and of marked worth. Of 
the more elaborate special histories, Palfrey's New England is 
still the best. For a scholarly English view, Doyle's English in 
America should be consulted. The best account of the New 
England Confederation is in Frothingham's Rise of the Republic. 
State histories are of unequal merit: Barry's Alassachusetts, 
Belknap's N'ezv Hampshire, Greene's Rhode Island, Johnston's 
CoJttiecticut, Williamson's Maine, and Heaton's Vermont are 
perhaps the best. Bradford's History of Plymouth Plantation 
and Winthrop's History of Neiv Ejigland are contemporary 
narratives. Hutchinson's Histoty of Massachusetts is of prime 
value. Important special works are: Lfe and Letters of fohn 
Winthrop; Ellis's Puritan Age and Rule; Hosmcr's Voung 
Sir Harry Vane; Upham's Salem Witchcraft; Wendell's Cotton 
Mather. 

Illustrative Literature. — Alice M. Earle's Customs and 
Fashions in Old Neiv England, Social Life in Old A^eiv England, 
and Child-life in Colonial Days; Lowell's New England Two 



50 THE NEIV ENGLAND COLONIES [1620-1750 

Centuries Ago; [ane G. Austin's Beliy Alden, A A'ameless Noble- 
man, S/andis/i 0/ Standuh, Dr. Le Baron and Hu Daughters, and 
David Alde?is Daughters (Plymouth); Longfellow's Miles 
Standish, John Endicott, and Giles Corey; Hawthorne's Tivice- 
Told Tales and Scarlet Letter ; Whittier's Mabel Martin; Motley's 
Merry Mount; Holland's Bay -Path; E. L. Bynner's Penelopes 
Suitors; V. J. Stimson's A''ing Noanett. 



CHAPTER V 

THE SOUTHERN COLONIES 

1607-1750 

(i) Virginia. 

76. The First Settlement of Virginia was at Jamestown, 
in 1607 (§ 31). For several years, the colony had a hard 
struggle for life. Most of the colonists at first were 
broken-down gentlemen, who neither wished to work nor 
knew how to work ; and the people had quite decided, 
several times, to return to England, when new supplies of 
men and food changed their purpose and saved the colony. 
In about ten years the colony became established firmly 
enough to take care of itself. It obtained from the 
London company the power to make its own laws in an 
assembly, or legislature, elected for that purpose; and in 
16 1 9, the first assembly ever elected in America met at 
Jamestown. In the same year we first hear of negro 
slavery in America. 

77. Captain John Smith was the most prominent man in 
the first two years of the colony's history. He seems to 
have been a bold and shrewd man, who did the colony 
good service in controlling the Indians and the colonists, 
and in exploring the surrounding country. He had a 
vivid imagination, and was a wonderful story-teller; but 
many of his stories are very doubtful. Smith was not 
liked by those colonists whom he forced to work. In 

§1 



52 



THE SOUTHERN COLONIES 



[1607 



1609, he went back to England, but afterward returned 
to America, and explored and named the coast of New 
England. 

78. The Colony soon became prosperous through the 
cultivation of tobacco. Tobacco was the money of the 
colony, everything being paid for in so many pounds of 




Caiiain Jlihn Smith. 



tobacco. One pound was then worth from two to twelve 
cents of our money, but could buy five or six times as 
much as at the present time. The settlers built their own 
vessels, and carried on commerce with England. The 
population grew steadily. In 17 15, it was believed to be 
about the same as that of Massachusetts, 95,000; and in 
1750, it was estimated at 285,000. When the Revolution 



T75o] VIRGINIA 53 

(§ 183) broke out, Viri^inia was one of the richest and 
most important of the thirteen colonies. 

79. The Territory of Virg-inia at first covered nearly all 
of the present Southern States, north of South Carolina, 
but was gradually reduced by the formation of new 
colonies. Thus, when the Revolution began, Virginia 
covered the present States of Virginia, West Virginia, and 
Kentucky. But Virginia claimed that its northern boun- 
dary ran northwest, instead of west, so as to take in the 
western part of Pennsylvania, and the present great 
northwestern States of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, 
and Wisconsin (§ 270). 

80. Virginia became a royal colony in 1624 (§ 32). 
The king did not take away the privileges already enjoyed 
by the colonists, and they continued to govern them- 
selves. During the Commonwealth period (§ 41), they 
sided with the king, until the Parliament threatened to 
send over a force to conquer them. The Navigation Acts 
(§ 67) were also intended to punish them. They sub- 
mitted unwillingly, and rejoiced at the restoration of 
Charles II. ^ But the new king showed them no favor. 
In 1673, he actually presented the colony to one of his 
court favorites, although he took the gift back again nine 
years afterward. 

81. Indian Wars were not numerous in Virginia. In 
the first, in 1622, about 350 settlers were killed, and there 
was some danger of the destruction of the colony. In the 
second, in 1644, about 300 settlers were killed. In both 
of these wars the Indians were conquered, and after the 
second they were no more troublesome. In 1675, the 
year of King Philip's War (§ 68), the Maryland Indians 

' At the restoration, Virginia called herself the new [^king's " ancient 
dominion," because of her steady loyalty ; and the State is still often called 
" The Old Dominion." 



54 THE SOUTHERN COLONIES [1607 

became troublesome to the Virginia settlers, and this was 
one of the reasons for the rebellion which followed. 

82. Bacon's Rebellion. —Governor Berkeley and a few 
of his friends had got the powers of government into their 
own hands. They believed that the Maryland Indians 
had been unjustly treated, and refused to make war on 
them. In 1676, a young planter, named Nathaniel 
Bacon, raised troops among the settlers, compelled the 
governor to conquer the Indians, and finally drove him 
out of Jamestown. In the struggle, Jamestown was 
burned, and it was never rebuilt; Williamsburgh became 
the capital. Bacon died suddenly, and his rebellion fell 
to pieces. The enraged governor hanged twenty-two of 
the principal rebels, and for a time governed the colony 
very harshly, but was soon recalled to England, where 
he shortly afterwards died. "The old fool," said the 
king, ' ' has taken away more lives in that naked country 
than I did for the murder of my father. 

83. The Virginian Colonists generally lived on large 
plantations, for they had plenty of fertile land at com- 
mand, and were not afraid of Indians. There were thus 
very few towns in the colony. The people were not so 
nearly equal in wealth as in New England: there were 
more very rich men, and more very poor ones; and the 
rich men were generally able to get most of the powers 
of government to themselves. Most of them were mem- 
bers of the Church of England, and their assemblies 
passed severe laws against the entrance of men of other 
religious beliefs to the colony. In this respect Virginia 
was like most of the other colonies (§ 51). It was not 
until after the Revolution that this spirit of religious per- 
secution altogether died away. 

84. Education. — The Virginians were so scattered that 
schools were very few, and education was confined to the 



T75o] 



MARYLAND 



55 



rich, who could send their sons to England. Governor 
Berkeley said, "I thank God there are no free schools, 
nor printing, and I hope we shall not have them these 
hundred years." In 1693, 
William and Mary College, 
the second college in the 
United States, was founded 
at Williamsburgh. It suffered 
much from the ravages of war, 
both in the Revolution and 
in the Civil War, but after 
having been closed several 
times, it has of late been re- 
organized and is now in opera- 
tion. 




SCALE OF MILES 



50 



100 



Virginia Colony. 



(2) Maryland. 

85. Roman Catholics were 
persecuted by the laws of 

England, as the Puritans and Quakers were persecuted, 
and the colony of Maryland was founded as a Catholic 
place of refuge. One of the leading English Catholics 
was Sir George Calvert, Lord Baltimore. He at first 
tried to found a Catholic colony in Newfoundland, but the 
unfavorable climate defeated it. He then fixed on that 
part of Virginia east of the Potomac River. Virginia had 
already explored it, and was preparing to settle it ; but 
Charles I. granted it to Baltimore without asking Vir- 
ginia's consent. Baltimore died, but the patent was given 
to his son, Cecil Calvert, in 1632. The name of Mary- 
land was given by the king in honor of the queen, 
Henrietta Maria. 

86. Settlement was begun in 1634, by Leonard Calvert, 
a brother of the new Lord Baltimore. He settled, with 



56 



THE SOUTHERN COLONIES 



[1607 



200 immigrants, at a little Indian village near the mouth 
of the Potomac, and called the place St. Mary's. The 
town of Annapolis was founded about 1683, and Baltimore 
in 1729. In 1635, the proprietor called a legislative 
assembly; and from that time the people governed them- 
selves, paying the proprietor some small taxes. The 




SCALE OF MILES 



Maryland. 



proprietor, in 1691, was a supporter of James II. ; and the 
new king, William, deprived him of his colony, and 
appointed the governors himself. In 17 16, the pro- 
prietor's rights were restored to him. The family of 
Calvert died out in 1771, and the people of Maryland 
became proprietors in 1776. 

87. Mason and Dixon's Line. — The territory of Mary- 
land, as it was granted to Lord Baltimore, included also 
the present State of Delaware and the southern part of 
Pennsylvania. When Pennsylvania was granted to Penn, 
in 168 1 (§ 121), a long dispute followed between Penn 
and Lord Baltimore as to the boundary between their 
grants. The matter was settled in 1763, and the boun- 
dary-line was run as at present. This was called 
"Mason and Dixon's line," from the names of the sur- 
veyors who marked it, and was long considered the 
boundary between the Northern and the Southern States. 

880 Religious Persecution was not allowed in Maryland 



ryso] NORTH CAROLINA 57 

while the Catholics retained control of the province. In 
this respect the Baptist colony of Rhode Island, the Catho- 
lic colony of Maryland, and the Quaker colony of Penn- 
sylvania deserve credit above the other colonies. Other 
settlers soon came into Maryland, and they were not so 
liberal. Some were from Virginia, and disliked the Mary- 
land government; others were Puritans, and disliked the 
Roman Catholics. In 1692, Maryland became an Episco- 
palian colony, like Virginia (§ 83). Laws were passed 
to support the Church of England by taxes, and religious 
toleration was checked. The unfortunate Roman Catho- 
lics, who had founded the colony and admitted others to 
it, were now harshly treated, forbidden to vote, and forced 
to pay taxes for the support of another church. This 
state of things lasted until the Revolution, when religious 
intolerance came to an end. 

89. The Maryland Colonists lived very much like those 
of Virginia (§§ 83, 84). Chesapeake Bay furnished great 
advantages for ships engaged in foreign commerce, and 
the Susquehannah River at its head opened up the Indian 
trade to the merchants of Maryland. Baltimore became 
one of the busiest towns on the coast, and the population 
of the colony grew from 200 in 1634 to 30,000 in 1700, 
50,000 in 17 1 5, and about 150,000 in 1750. There were 
hardly any serious Indian wars to disturb the peace of the 
colony. 

(3) NortJi Carolina. 

90. Carolina was granted in 1663 and 1665, by Charles 
II., to eight proprietors.^ It included the territory now 

1 Among the proprietors were Hyde, Lord Clarendon; Monk, Duke of 
Albemarle, who had been a leader in restoring Charles II. ; I/Ord Ashley 
Cooper, afterward Earl of Shaftesbury; Governor Berkeley of Virginia 
(§82); and his brother and Carteret, afterward proprietors of New Jersey 
(§118). 



$8 THE SOUTHERN COLONIES [1607 

in the States of North CaroHna, South CaroHna, and 
Georgia, and westward to the Pacific Ocean. The French 
at Port Royal had called the country Carolina, a hundred 
years before (§ 18), in honor of their king, Charles IX. 
{Cai'olus, in Latin) ; and the English now retained the 
name, in honor of their king, Charles II. The country 
had remained uninhabited since the failure of the French 
colony, except that a few Virginians had pushed down the 
coast and settled the northern shore of Albemarle Sound. 

91. The Plan of Government which the proprietors 
formed for their new colony was very remarkable. There 
were to be nobles, called barons, landgraves, and cas- 
siques, each with a certain number of acres of land. The 
rest of the people were to have no share in the govern- 
ment, and were to be bought and sold with the soil. 
The plan was wholly unfit for an American settlement, 
and the colonists refused to have anything to do with it; 
but for more than fifty years the proprietors tried at inter- 
vals to force it on the colony. ^ 

92. The Province remained united for about seventy 
years. But it was found from the beginning that North 
Carolina and South Carolina covered too much space to 
be easily governed as one colony. They were therefore 
considered two counties of the same province, and each 
had its own assembly and governor. In 1729, the pro- 
prietors gave up their rights to the king. Both North 
Carolina and South Carolina then remained royal colonies 
until the Revolution. 

93. In North Carolina the proprietors adopted the Vir- 
ginian settlement (j:^ 90) as their own, and called it the 

^ This was the only colony in which there was an attempt to have a 
nobility (§37). John Locke, an English philosopher, who was atone time 
Ashley's secretary, drew up the plan, which is known as the "Fundamental 
Constitutions." 



175°] NORTH CAROLINA 59 

Albemarle colony. In 1665, a colony from Barbadoes 
settled near the Cape Fear River. It was called the 
Clarendon colony, but was soon removed into South 
Carolina. The population of the whole colony grew very 
slowly for a time. There were a few settlers from New 
England, and more fled to North Carolina from Virginia 
after the failure of Bacon's rebellion (§ 82). New Berne 
was settled by a colony of Swiss in 171 1. After 1740, 
there was an increase of settlement, because of rebellions 
in Scotland. Those who had been engaged in the out- 
breaks were allowed by the British Government to leave 
Scotland, and many of them settled in North Carolina. 
Fayetteville was settled by Scotch immigrants in 1746. 
The population of the colony was estimated at 1 1,200 in 
17 15, and at about 90,000 in 1750. 

94. The Government was generally bad. Hardly any 
colony had such a remarkable succession of bad men 
sent out as governors ; and the early history of North 
Carolina is mainly one of resistance by the people to the 
governors' illegal taxation. In 1677, one governor 
attempted to enforce the Navigation Acts (§ 6^); and the 
people imprisoned him and set up a new government for 
themselves. In 1688, another governor was driven away 
from the colony. In 177 i, Governor Tryon collected an 
army, fought a pitched battle with his people, who called 
themselves Regulators, and defeated them. The cruel 
manner in which he punished the leaders drove many of 
them across the mountains, and helped to settle Tennessee 
(§301). 

95. Indian Wars were few. The most important was 
with the Tuscaroras, in 171 1. With the help of South 
Carolina, the colony defeated the Indians, and drove most 
of them away to New York, where they became one of 
the Six Nations (§ 3). 



6o 



THE SOUTHERN COLONIES 



[1607 



96 Scattered Population. — The North CaroHna colonists 
were at first more widely scattered than the settlers in any 
other colony. The great pine forests had no good roads; 
and the people were mainly engaged in making tar and 

turpentine from the 
trees. As they ex- 
plored the country 
farther from the coast, 
they found it much 
more open and fertile, 
and here they engaged 
in farming and hunt- 
But they were still very 
much scattered, and were unable 
to introduce schools in any great 
number, or the conveniences of set- 
tled life. Nevertheless, the colony 
Carolina. became firmly established. It refused 

to allow religious persecution, defeated 
the attempt to make the Church of England the official 
church, and became a place of refuge for those who were 
persecuted in neighboring colonies. But the spirit of 
independence which marked the people was not pleasant 
to the governors, who often called them ' ' a turbulent 
people. " 

(4) SoutJi Carolina. 

97. The First English Settlement in South Carolina was 
made in 1670. A colony, sent out by the proprietors, 
reached the coast at Port Royal, then sailed north to the 
Ashley River, and on the first highland above the mouth 
of the river established a settlement, which was afterward 
called Old Charlestown. The location was found to be 
a poor one, and in 1680 the settlement was moved down 




175°] SOUTH CAROLINA 6 1 

to the point of land between the Ashley and Cooper 
rivers, where Charleston now stands. The Clarendon 
colony from North Carolina soon joined it (§ 93). Dutch 
families, dissatisfied with English rule in New York 
(§ III), also came to South Carolina, and so did a num- 
ber of French Huguenot settlers, driven from home by 
religious persecution. As in North Carolina, there were 
many Scotch settlers. The population of the colony was 
estimated at 16,750 in 171 5, and about 80,000 in 1750.^ 

98. The Colony first became prosperous through the 
cultivation of rice, which began in 1693. For a time, 
rice was the money of the colony, as tobacco was in Vir- 
ginia and Maryland (§ 78). In 1740, it required two 
hundred and fifty-seven British vessels to carry the 
colony's produce to Europe. In 1754, indigo was intro- 
duced with still more success. These two articles made 
South Carolina one of the richest of the colonies. Cotton 
was not successfully cultivated until after 1793 (§ 315). 

99. Two Districts, the uplands and the lowlands, were 
formed in the colony as population grew. The uplands, 
toward the mountains, were settled by foreign immigrants 
and mountaineers, who cultivated small farms or engaged 
in hunting. This part of the colony had little money and 
few negro slaves. The lowlands, where the rice, indisro, 
and cotton grew, contained the wealthy people and the 
large plantations. This part of the colony was cultivated 
by negro slaves, for it was unhealthy for white laborers; 
and before many years there were more than twice as 
many negroes as whites. In 1740, there was a small 
negro insurrection. 

100. The People were thus very poor in the uplands, 
and very much scattered in the lowlands. There were 

1 Charleston was the only important town. It was known as Charles 
Town until after the Revolution, 



62 THE SOUTHERN COLONIES [1607 

hardly any schools except in Charleston ; but the rich 
planters of the lowlands sent their sons to England to be 
educated. The people of the lowlands were generally 
members of the Church of England, and in 1706 they 
made that the established church of the colony. But there 
can hardly be said to have been any religious persecution 
in this colony. 

101. Early Wars. — None of the southern colonies took 
part in the early French wars, with the exception of 
Queen Anne's War (§71)- In 1702, South Carolina, then 
the southernmost colony, sent an expedition to the 
Spanish territory of Florida. It captured St. Augustine, 
but was driven away by the arrival of two Spanish war- 
vessels. In 1706, a French and Spanish expedition from 
Cuba appeared before Charleston, but the South Caro- 
linians fought so well that it was beaten off with the loss 
of half its men. Before the next war took place, Georgia 
had become the southernmost colony, and did most of the 
fighting (§ 106). 

102. Indian Wars The Indian allies of France and 

Spain were always troublesome. In 171 5, they formed a 
confederacy to destroy the white settlers. The colony 
was aided by Virginia and North Carolina ; and the 
Indians were defeated, and their power was broken. The 
proprietors refused to pay their share of the expense of 
these wars; and in 1719, before they had given up their 
rights, the people overturned the government, and ob- 
tained a governor from the king. South Carolina then 
remained a royal colony until the Revolution. 

(5) Georgia. 

103. The English Poor suffered terribly at the beginning 
of the last century. Those who could not pay their debts 
were imprisoned in jails, whose condition was filthy 



175°] GEORGIA 63 

beyond description. Their sufferings, and those of the 
EngHsh poor generally, touched the heart of James 
Oglethorpe, an English officer and a kindly man. In 
1732, he obtained from King George II. a grant of that 
part of South Carolina west of the Savannah River. ^ He 
named this territory Georgia, in honor of the king. The 
English Parliament made grants of money to assist those 
who wished to emigrate. 

104. The First Settlement was made in 1733, at Savan- 
nah, where Oglethorpe himself planted a colony of one 
hundred and fourteen persons. Colonies of Germans and 
Scotch followed. Darien and Augusta were founded in 
1736. But the colony increased so slowly that in 1750 
there were but five thousand inhabitants, living in these 
three towns and on a few scattered plantations. Its terri- 
tory extended to the Mississippi River, covering the 
larger part of the present States of Georgia, Alabama, 
and Mississippi ; but most of it was still in the hands of 
the Indians. Oglethorpe treated the Indians justly, and 
bought from them the land that he needed. The Indians 
gave the colonists very little trouble. 

105. Georgia was the latest and the weakest of the 
colonies. Slavery was at first forbidden in it, and many 
of the colonists believed that this was the reason for their 
lack of prosperity. In 1747, the trustees yielded to the 
wishes of the colonists, and allowed negro slaves to be 
brought into the colony. In 1752, the trustees gave up 
the colony to the king, and Georgia became a royal 
colony. 



1 As the territory of South Carolina had been surrendered to the king in 
1729 (§92), its people could make no objection to the king's formation of a 
new colony within their territory. Indeed, they favored it, in order to 
have a new colony as a barrier between themselves and the Spaniards in 
Florida (§ loi). 



64 THE SOUTHERN COLONIES [1607 

106. The Spanish War. — England declared war against 
Spain in 1739, and the whole burden of the war in 
America fell on the southernmost colonies. Early in 
1740, Oglethorpe attacked Florida with Georgia troops, 
and captured two towns. He went again to Florida some 
months afterward, with fresh troops from South Carolina, 
and laid siege to the principal town, St. Augustine. 
Sickness in his army broke up the siege, and he retired to 
Georgia. In 1742, a Spanish expedition returned the 
attack. Oglethorpe met it near the mouth of the 
Altamaha River, and defeated the Spaniards in one battle. 
They then retired to Cuba, and warlike operations 
ceased. 1 

(6) 77u- SoiitJicrn Colonics in Coieral. 

107 Their Independent Position. — The southern col- 
onies, in their early history, did not generally act together 
as the New England colonies did (§ 6G). New England 
was not a large territory. Its people were more closely 
settled, were nearly all of the same blood, and were thus 
very likely to act together. The territory covered by the 
southern colonies was very large, and was crossed by very 
many large rivers flowing into the Atlantic Ocean. Most 
of the people were English, but there were also many 
Scotch, Irish, French, Germans, and Dutch. Each 
planter lived at a distance from others, on a great planta- 
tion. For all these reasons, life in the southern colonies 
was quiet, and had little to do with neighboring colonies. 

108. The People of the southern colonies lived generally 
as in Virginia (§ 83). There were many large planta- 

* Oglethorpe returned to England in 1743 and remained there. While 
he lived he continued to be a warm friend to the colonies. He died in 
1785, at the age of 97, having seen the independence of the United States 
jicknowledged by Great Britain (§ 263). 



175°] SUPPLEMENTARY READING 65 

tions, and few larg^e towns or attempts at manufactures. 
Many of the planters owned their own vessels, and sent 
them directly to Europe from their plantations. Many of 
them also kept their accounts very carelessly, and were 
hopelessly in debt to the aj^ents in Europe who sold their 
cargoes and bought goods in return for them. There 
were very few schools; the children of the planters were 
educated in Europe or at home on the plantation, while 
poorer children were educated very little or not at all. 
As a general rule, it may be said that neighboring colonies 
and neighboring people had most to do with one another 
in New England, less in the middle colonies, and least of 
all in the southern colonies.^ 

Topics for Further Study. 



The life of a Virginia planter. 



Bacon's rebelHon. 

Local government in a southern colony {e.g., Maryland). 
England and the African slave-trade. 

Why was there no colonial union, such as the New 
England Confederation, in the south ^ 

6. Class distinctions in the southern colonies. 

Supplementary Reading. 

Sources. — For the charters, see MacDonald's Selecl Charters, 
Nos. I, 2, 3, 12, 26, 32, and 49. The extracts in Hart's 
Contemporaries, vol. i., chaps. 9-13, illustrate from contemporary 
sources the social conditions in the southern colonies. 

Narrative Accounts. — Fiske's Old Virginia and Her Neigh- 
bors is the best recent account of the early history of the 
southern colonies. It should be compared with Doyle's English 
in America, vol. i., chaps. 6-12, and Eggleston's Beginners of a 

^ The separation of life in the Southern States influenced their history 
strongly down to recent times. The people of each State, separated from 
the rest of the country by long distances and poor communication, were apt 
to think the State the most important and powerful part of the country. 



66 THE SOUTHERN COLONIES [175° 

Xalion, hk. i., chaps. 2 ami 3. Lodge's Short History, chaps. 
i-io, is also useful. Bruce's Economic History of Virginia is 
of prime importance, and not too learned for general use. Of 
histories of separate colonies and states, Browne's Maryland, 
Cooke's Virginia, Moore's North Carolina, and Jones's Georgia 
are favorably known. McCrady's South Carolina under the 
Proprietary Government and South Caroli7ia under the Royal 
Government are more elaborate, but indispensable for that 
colony. There is a life of Oglethorpe by Bruce. 

Illustrative Literature. — Mary Johnston's Prisoners 0/ 
Hope and To Have and To Hold; N. B. Eyster's A Colonial Boy; 
Tucker's Hansford; J. P. Kennedy's Rob of the Bowl; W. G. 
Simms's Cassique of Kiawah and Yemassee. 



CHAPTER VI 

THE MIDDLE COLONIES 

1623-1750 

(r) Ne%v York. 

109. The Dutch Settlement of New Netherland has 
already been narrated (§ 28). Four governors, Peter 
Minuit, WoLiter van Twiller, William Kieft, and Peter 
Stuyvesant, sent out by the Dutch West India Company, 
ruled New Netherland successively from 1626 until 1664. 
By that time, the English colonies to the north and south 
had grown so strong that they began to feel it to be 
troublesome and dangerous to have a foreign colony 
between them. In 1664, King Charles II., claiming that 
the territory of New Netherland belonged to England by 
discovery, and that the Dutch were only intruders, granted 
the territory to his brother, the Duke of York. The duke 
sent out a force, the same year, under Colonel Nichols, 
who compelled Stuyvesant, the last Dutch governor, to 
give up possession. The territory then became the Eng- 
lish colonies of New York and New Jersey (§ 118). 

110. New York became a royal colony in 1685, when 
its owner, the Duke of York, succeeded to the throne. 
A large part of Long Island was settled by Connecticut 
people, who claimed it as part of their colony; but the 
duke's power was too great for them to resist, and Long 
Island became a part of New York. But New York 
was then no such important power as it has since become. 

67 



68 



THE MIDDLE COLONIES 



[i6: 



To the north, it inchided both banks of the Hudson to 
Albany. Beyond Alban}% there were a few scattered 
settlements, such as Schenectady, but almost the whole 
territory was in the possession of the Indians or the French, 




Peter Siuvvesant. 



and could hardly be considered a part of New York at all. 
New York was thus a small colony, a narrow strip of land 
on the Hudson, with a fine harbor and island at the south, 
and at the northwest an excellent opportunity for growth. 
111. Holland had good reason to complain of the con- 
quest of New York, and in 1673, while at war with 
England, the province was retaken by the Dutch. Man)' 
of the people were not sorry for the change; but the 



1750] NEIV YORK 69 

colony was given back to the English when peace was 
made in 1674. 

112. The Settlement of the colony, under the Dutch, 
had been accomplished by granting large tracts of land to 
" patroons, " that is, men who brought over a number of 
settlers for their estates. New York was thus different 
from New England ; instead of little townships, divided 
into farms owned by the farmers, it had large tracts of 
land owned by patroons, and the farmers were only 
tenants. 1 On the other hand, it was also different from 
the southern colonies ; for the people lived rather closer 
together, and had more to do with one another. 

113. The English Government of New York was almost 
always bad. The Duke of York did not allow the people 
to elect an assembly until 1683, ^i""^' '^^ soon as he became 
king, in 1685, he took the privilege away. It was restored 
by William and Mary in 1691, and was not taken away 
again. Very many of the governors were men unfit to 
govern. The people drove one of them out in 1689, ^^"''^ 
put one of their own number, Jacob Leisler, into his place. 
Leisler refused to recognize the authority of the new 
governor, Sloughter, sent out by William and Mary in 
1691, and the governor arrested him for high treason. 
When Leisler had been convicted, Sloughter was per- 
suaded to sign his death-warrant. Other governors 
were no better than Sloughter. One was believed to be 
a partner of the pirates who infested the coast; another 
swindled the colony and robbed its treasury ; and another 
cheated the people by making them pay illegal fees. 

114. Pirates, or buccaneers, were very troublesome to 
all the colonies in their early history, particularly to New 
York. They made navigation so dangerous that, in 1697, 

' The patroon system was not cliaiiged under the English, and traces of 
it have remained until our own day (§ 514). 



70 



THE MIDDLE COLONIES 



[1623 



Captain Kidd,^ a New York shipmaster, was sent against 
them by the governor. He ran away with the vessel and 




New York City in 1656. 

turned pirate himself. He returned some three years 
afterward, was arrested, tried in England and hanged. 
Piracy in American waters was finally put down about 
1720. 

115. Negro Slavery existed in the colony, though there 
were not so many slaves as in the southern colonies. In 
1 741, it was believed that the negroes in New York City 
had made a plot to kill all the whites. Before the excite- 
ment ceased, 4 whites and iS negroes were hanged, 14 
negroes were burned at the stake, and 71 negroes were 
banished. It is almost certain now, however, that there 
was in reality no such plot. 

116. New York City had become one of the most im- 
portant places on the coast before 1750. Its great advan- 
tages were its fine harbor, and the noble river which 
emptied into it. The other towns on the coast were shut 
off from the far west by the Appalachian or Alleghany 
Mountains, which follow the Atlantic coast, at a distance 
of one or two hundred miles from the sea, from Georgia 
to Maine. But the Hudson River breaks through this 



^ Kidd's name is variously given :is William or Robert. There are many 
stories as to the places in which he is said to have buried his money. 



75°J 



hIElV YORK 



71 



barrier, and thus New York had easy access to Canada 
and the profitable Indian trade. In 1697, the city con- 
tained about 4, 300 inhabitants, one third of them being 
slaves. The city extended from the Battery to a palisaded 




The Middle Colonies. 



wall where Wall Street now runs. All above Wall 
Street was in the country. The population grew to about 
8,500 in 1730, and about 12,000 in 1750. 

117. The Growth of the Colony was slow but steady. 
The population was about 31,000 in 17 15, and about 



72 THE MIDDLE COLONIES [1623 

90,000 in 1750. The principal places were New York 
City, Albany (called by the Dutch Fort Orange), and 
Kingston. Brooklyn was only a ferry station from New 
York City to Long Island. To the north and west of 
Albany, Schenectady was founded in 166 1. It was but 
a frontier village, and was captured and plundered by the 
French and Indians in 1690, and again in 1748. 

(2) JVi'zc Jersey. 

118. New Jersey was a part of New Netherland under 
the Dutch (§ 28). In 1664, the Duke of York granted 
it to Lord John Berkeley and Sir George Carteret.^ In 
1676, it was divided, East Jersey going to Carteret, and 
West Jersey to a company of Quakers, who had bought 
out Berkeley's interest. In 1702, all the proprietors gave 
up their rights to the queen, and New Jersey became a 
royal colony. It had the same governor as New York 
until 1738 ; but in that year it became an entirely separate 
colony. 

119. The First Settlement was made in 1664 at Eliza- 
bethtown (now Elizabeth), by Puritans from Long Island. 
Newark was settled by Connecticut people in 1666. Bur- 
lington, a Quaker town, founded in 1677, was one of the 
capitals of the colony ; Perth Amboy was the other, and 
it was thought for a long time that it was to be a greater 
city than New York. The population of the colony was 
estimated at 22,500 in 17 15, and at about 75,000 in 1750. 

120. The Government was at first very satisfactory. 
The proprietors, in 1665, granted to the people certain 
"concessions," which were practically a charter. The 
colony was to be governed by an assembly elected by the 

' Tlie name New Jersey was given in compliment to Carteret, wlio had 
been governor ol the island of Jersey in the English Channel. 



1750] PENNSYLVANIA 73 

people, and a governor and council appointed by the pro- 
prietors. When New Jersey became a royal colony, the 
governors often attempted to overrule the assembly, and 
frequent disputes took place. But the people were very 
little annoyed by these disputes. Most of them were 
prosperous farmers, and the mild laws and freedom of the 
colony attracted many immigrants, particularly Dutch 
from New York and Long Island. In 1746, the College 
of New Jersey, the fourth American college, was founded 
at Elizabethtown ; in 1756 it was removed to Princeton 
and has since remained there. 

(3) Poinsylvania. 

121. The Quakers were persecuted in England, and 
they, too, longed for an American place of refuge. It 
was for this reason that some of them had bought a part 
of New Jersey (§ 118). In 168 1, their most influential 
leader, William Penn, obtained from Charles II., in pay- 
ment of a debt which the British Government owed to his 
father, a grant of the territory which is now the State of 
Pennsylvania.^ Although he meant this to be a Quaker 
colony, he did not shut out persons of other religious 
beliefs, and he did not allow religious persecution of any 
kind. In 1682, he obtained from the Duke of York what 
is now the State of Delaware, and added it to his colony 
(§ 128). 

122. The Quakers differed from the Church of England 
in many respects, but particularly in their refusal to serve 
as soldiers, or to encourage war in any way. Further, 
they made it a point of conscience to take no oaths, and 

1 The name Pennsylvania means " Penn's woods" or " Penn's forest 
country." It was given by the king, not by Penn. The southern boundary 
was settled only after long disputes with Lord Baltimore (§87). 



74 THE MIDDLE COLONIES [1623 

not to take their hats off in the presence of other men. 
Such ideas and practices were considered highly dis- 
respectful by English magistrates, and the harmless 
Quakers were sent to jail or otherwise punished for persist- 
ing in them. 

123. Settlement had been begun already by the Swedes 
and Dutch, principally in Delaware. Chester (then called 
Upland) was founded by them in 1643. Penn at once 
sent out a company of emigrants, and in 1682 came over 
himself with a still stronger company. He is said to have 
met the Indians under a great elm-tree, by the side of the 
Delaware River, where he bought the land from them, 
and made with them a treaty of peace and good-will which 
was not broken for seventy years. Early in 1683, he laid 
out a capital city for the colony, calling it Philadelphia, 
a name which means "brotherly love." 

124. The Government of the new colony was unusually 
good. The governor was to be appointed by the pro- 
prietor; the assembly was to be elected by the people; 
and the governor and assembly were to make the laws. 
No one believing "in one Almighty God" was to be 
annoyed for his religious belief. Christians of every sect 
could vote or hold office. All this was due to Penn, who 
made out the plan of government and offered it to the 
colonists. With some changes, this plan of government 
remained in force until 1776. 

125. Penn and his Province. — Penn was deprived of his 
province in 1692, because he was suspected of siding with 
James II. ; but in a short time it was given back to him. 
In 1699, he made another visit to the colony. He died 
in 1718, and his sons became proprietors. Part of the 
land had been reserved for them, and as the colony grew 
older, the people became more discontented with the pay- 
ment of rents. There were man\' disputes and much ill 



175°] 



PHILADELPHIA 



75 



feeling' between the people and the proprietors, and during 
the Revolution the State abolished the rents, paying the 
proprietors ;<^i 30,000 ($650,000) for them. 

126. Philadelphia grew rapidly, and was larger than 
New York City until after the Revolution. In 1740, it 
had about 12,000 inhabitants, and was as thriving a place 
as any on the coast. It was noted above other cities for 
its excellent buildings, its cleanliness, and its care for 




William Penn. 



education. The printing-press was introduced in 1686, 
and a public high-school in 1689. The University of 
Pennsylvania dates from 1779, and has absorbed certain 
other educational institutions established in Philadelphia 
as early as 1749. 



76 THE MIDDLE COLONIES [1623 

127. The Growth of the Colony was steady. Its popula- 
tion (with Delaware) was estimated at 45,800 in 17 15, 
and about 200,000 in 1750. Most of these were farmers, 
and Philadelphia was the only important city. The 
western part of the province, where Pittsburgh now stands, 
was for many years unsettled (§ 307) ; and the coal and 
iron of the eastern part, which now support thriving 
towns, were quite unknown. No colony except New 
York had among its settlers such a variety of peoples and 
languages. As a general rule, the English kept to the 
southeastern part of the colony, the Dutch and Germans 
to the east and northeast, and the Scotch and Irish to the 
central part. 

(4) DclaziHxrc. 

128. Delaware, or New Sweden, was settled by the 
Swedes in 1638, and conquered by the Dutch in 1655 
(§ 29). It passed with New Netherland to the Duke of 
York, who transferred it to Penn in 1682 ($ 121). Its 
people were allowed a separate assembly in 1703, but had 
the same governor as Pennsylvania, and were considered 
a part of Pennsylvania until the Revolution. They then 
formed a State government of their own, at first under the 
name of "the Delaware State," and then under that of 
the State of Delaware. Their colony had previously been 
known only as "the Territories," or "the three lower 
counties on the Delaware." ^ 

(5j TJic Colonics in General. 

129. The Population of the American colonies had 
grown from nothing in 1606 to about 1,260,000 in 1750. 
We have only estimates of the population at different 

1 Delaware takes its name from the river ami bay which front it, and 
these were, named from Lord Delaware, who is said to have visited the bay 
in 1610. 



175(^1 COLONIAL ASSBMBLIBS 77 

times, but these estimates, made by careful men, are 
probably not far from the truth. In 1688, the colonies 
had about 200,000 inhabitants; in 1714, about 435,000; 
in 1727, about 600,000; and in 1750, about 1,260,000.^ 
Evident!)' these were growing colonies, growing far faster 
than England was growing, or than any other country 
had ever grown. All these people considered themselves 
Englishmen, and were proud of the name. Most of 
them had never seen the king, but all were proud of 
being his subjects. The king of Great Britain had thus a 
fair chance of becoming more powerful than other kings 
in Europe, for he had a new and fast-growing kingdom 
across the Atlantic. 

130.* The Assemblies — The characteristic feature of the 
government of the l'>nglish colonies was the assemblies. 
These were elected by the people, and constituted the 
law-making bodies of the colonies, although in some 
colonies the power was shared \\\i\\ a council, appointed 
by the king. Where not provided for in the charter, as 
in Massachusetts, they were supposed to act by permission 
of the king or the proprietor, and subject more or less to 
instructions given to the governors ; but the distance of 
the colonies from England made necessary the existence 
of a legislative body close at hand and acquainted with 
the condition and needs of the colony. When coloniza- 
tion began in North America, the people of Europe as a 
whole had no share in making laws or in choosing those 
who did make them, that privilege being confined either 
to certain families or to certain classes of people. In the 
colonies, the franchise, or right of voting, was not at first 
free, but was restricted, for example, to men who had a 

' Bancroft divides the population in 1754 as follows : New England, 
436,000 ; middle colonies, 380,000 ; southern colonies, 609,000 (222,000 
being slaves); total, 1,425,000. 



78 THE MIDDLE COLONIES [1623 

prescribed amount of property, or who professed a par- 
ticular religious belief, l^ut the number of those who 
could vote for members of the assemblies was at first 
relatively large, and tended constantly to increase. Since 
laws made by these local legislatures were more satisfac- 
tory to the people than those made by some remote body 
could have been, the assemblies came to be. looked upon 
as valuable safeguards against unfair discrimination or 
oppression; and when, years afterwards, the British Par- 
liament began to exercise more generally its right to 
make laws for the colonies, it was the assemblies that led 
the resistance. 

131. The Industry of the Colonies was remarkable. 
The people grew tobacco, rice, indigo, and other products, 
which the people of Great Britain were glad to take and 
pay for with their own manufactures. A great trade with 
the colonies had thus grown up, and it made both Great 
Britain and the colonies richer. The colonies were now 
so much richer and stronger that they were already able 
to vote money, ships, and men to help the king in his 
wars. All this increase of wealth and power had hardly 
cost England or the king anything. The colony of 
Georgia, the weakest of all, was the only one which had 
ever received help in money from the British Govern- 
ment. 

132.* Great Britain's Feeling seemed to be one more of 
alarm than of pleasure at the rapid growth of the colonies. 
The kings of England had always considered the colonies 
as very subordinate parts of their possessions. The 
governments of Europe had always looked upon colonies 
primarily as sources of wealth, whose trade and natural 
resources were to be managed for the benefit of the 
mother country. It was to carry out this policy that the 
Navigation Acts had been passed. In 1C96, a Board of 



175°] GROIVTH OF THE COLONIES 79 

Trade and Plantations had been formed, to watch the 
progress of the colonies and enforce the Navigation Acts. 
As the colonies grew richer and more populous, the task 
of the Board became more difficult; while the colonies, 
at the same time, found the Navigation Acts an increasing 
annoyance, and began systematically to evade them. 

133. The Scattered Settlements along the coast were at 
first widely separated. There was a long stretch of forest 
between each colony and its nearest neighbor ; and it was 
easier for a man at Boston to get to London than to get 
to New York or Charleston. The colonies, except in 
New England, had very little to do with their neighbors; 
and it is for this reason that the history of each colony 
has so far been given separately. In 1750, things had 
changed very much. The spaces between the original 
colonies were now pretty well filled with settlements; and 
men might travel overland along the whole coast, with- 
out running any great danger from Indians, wild beasts, 
or starvation. In 1740, George Whitefield, the great 
revivalist preacher, travelled through the whole of the new 
country, from Georgia to New England. A journey in 
America was a far morer aduous affair than now, however, 
for the roads were very bad, there were few bridges, and 
steam was not yet used for travel ; but it was far easier 
than it had been at first. Intercourse between the colo- 
nies had become more common. It was now easier for 
them to act together than to act separately; and, as they 
did act together from this time, their history must hence- 
forth be given as one.^ 

134. Summary. — It has seemed best, so far, to give the 

^ The New England colonies had already often acted together, and 
even formed a union in 1643. Nearly all the colonies were now to act 
together in the French and Indian War. All the colonies finally united 
in resisting the king and Parliament, in beginning the Revolution, and in 
making a new nation, the United States of America. 



8o THE MIDDLE COLONIES [^623 

history of the different colonies in ideographical groups. 

The leading events in their history, in order of time, are 
as follows : 

1606 : English Colonizalioti begun §25 

1607 : Virginia first settled at Jamestown 31 

1619: First legislative assembly 76 

Slavery first mentioned 39 

1676: Bacon's Rebellion 82 

1620: Massachusetts first settled at Plymouth 45 

1630: Massachusetts Company transferred to 

America 48 

1691 : The two colonies united 54 

1692 : The Salem witchcraft , 53 

1623: New Hampshire first settled at Dover and Ports- 
mouth 55 

164 1 : Became part of Massachusetts 56 

1691 : Became a separate colony 56 

1623 : New York settled at New Amsterdam by the Dutch. 28 

1664 : Conquered by the English 28 

1691 : Leisler's execution 113 

1 74 1 : Negro plot 115 

1634 : Maryland first setded at St. Mary's 86 

1692 : Toleration ceased 88 

1763 : Mason and Dixon's line settled 87 

1634-6 : Connecticut first settled at Wethersfield, Windsor, 

and Hartford 58 

1638: New Haven settled 60 

1639: The first constitution adopted 58 

1665 : The two colonies united 61 

1636 : Rhode Island first settled at Providence 62 

1 644 : Its plantations united 63 

1638 : Delaware first settled by the Swedes 29 

1655 : Conquered by the Dutch 29 

1664 : Conquered by the English 29 

1682: Sold to Penn 121 

1 703 : Became a separate colony 128 

1643 : The New England Confederation formed 66 

165 1 : The Navigaiion Ac/s begun 67 

1663: North Carolina first settled at Albemarle 90 

1 7 1 1 : The Tuscarora War 95 

1729: The colony transferred to the king 92 



175°] SUMMARY 8 1 

1664 : New Jersey first settled at Elizabethtown §119 

1702 : Became a royal colony 118 

1 738 : Became a separate colony 118 

1670: South Carolina first settled at Old Charlestown. . . 97 

1729: Became a royal colony 92 

1675 : King Philip's War begun 68 

1682 : Pennsylvania settled near Philadelphia 123 

1683: Philadelphia founded 123 

1 701 : The new charter given 124 

1686 : The Andros Governmetit begun 70 

1 702 : Queen Anne's War begun 71 

1 7 10: Port Royal (Annapolis) taken 72 

1 7 13: Queen Anne's War ended 71 

1733 : Georgia first settled at Savannah 104 

1740: The Spanish War 106 

1752: Georgia became a royal colony 105 

1744 : King George's War begun 71 

1745 : Louisburg captured 72 

1748: King George's War ended 71 

Topics for Further Study. 

1. Dutch life in New Amsterdam. 

2. The Quakers in England. 

3. The Quakers in New Jersey. 

4. A Delaware hundred. 

5. The Quaker schism in Pennsylvania. 

Supplementary Reading. 

Sources. — The charters, and extracts from the principal 
grants, are given in MacDonald's Select Charters, Nos. 9, 29, 
30. 35. 36, 38, 39. 40, 41, 44, and 46; the New Jersey "con- 
cessions and agreements," ibid., Nos. 31 and 37. Hart's Con- 
temporaries, vol. I., chaps. 22-26, deals with the period covered 
by this chapter. 

Narrative Accounts. — The best general account of the 
middle colonies, and also the most recent, is Fiske's Dutch and 
Quaker Colonies. Lodge's Short History, chaps. 11-17, gives a 
narrative more closely packed with facts. Of state histories, 
Roberts's New York, Brodhead's New York, vols. i. and 11. (to 
1 691), Scharf's Delaware, Raum's Neiv Jersey, Cornell's Pemi- 
sylvania, and Y.^\q.'s Pennsylvania, part i., are the most useful; 



82 THE MIDDLE COLONIES [175° 

Lamb's History of the City of New York and Scharf and West- 
cott's History of Philadelphia are also important. The best life 
of Penn is that of Janney. Of contemporary Pennsylvania 
writers, none is so important as Franklin, who made his home 
in Philadelphia after 1723. 

Illustrative Literature. — J. K. Paulding's Koningsmarke ; 
Irving's Knickerbocker s History of New York; E. L. Bynner's 
The Begum'' s Daughter ; Eldridge Brooks's hi Leister's Times; 
Cooper's Water Witch; Whittier's Pennsylvajiia Pilgrim; Whar- 
ton's Through Colonial Doorways. 



CHAPTER VII 

THE STRUGGLE FOR ENGLISH SUPREMACY 

1750-1763 

(i) Frciu/i Scttlcviciit. 

135. English Colonization had now seized firmly on the 
Atlantic coast of North America, between Canada and 
Florida, and had there formed thirteen colonies. These 
colonies were most of them supposed to extend westward 
to the Pacific Ocean ; but their actual population did not 
extend half as far westward as did their boundaries when 
they became States. From New England to Georgia the 
Appalachian or Alleghany Mountains w'ere a western 
barrier for all the colonies, beyond which population had 
not yet passed. Between the Alleghanies and the Missis- 
sippi River the whole country was now claimed by the 
French, who had passed into it from Canada, and called 
it New France, or Louisiana.^ 

136. Canada fell into the hands of the French after 
1605, without any opposition from the English (§ 19). 
Champlain pushed westward and explored western 
Canada and northern New York : Lake Champlain was 
named after him. Other Frenchmen followed him, 

' The French claim really included the whole of western New York also. 
Properly, the name New PVance included Canada and all the French posses- 
sions in North America. The name Louisiana was given to such French 
possessions as are now within the United .States. After 1763, the name was 
given to the territory west of the Mississippi (§ 155). 

83 




84 THE STRUGGLE FOR ENGLISH SUPREMACY [175° 

the most cnteri)ri.sini^ being French missionaries to the 
Indians. In 1673, one of them, named Marquette, 

with a trader named Joliet, 
entered what is now the 
United States, in search of 
a great river of which the 
Indians had told them. 
They found the Mississippi, 
and sailed down that river 
to about the place where De 
Soto had crossed it (§ 14). 
In much the same way, 
"■f ^^^'""■"■^=5^^^ ^ R%^-- French explorers made 

known a large part of what 
are now the northwestern 

Samuel deChampla.n. g^^^^^ j,^ j^g^^ L^ g^jj^ 

sailed down the Mississippi to its mouth, and named the 
whole region Louisiana. In 1684, he attempted to plant 
a colony, which he brought from France, at the mouth 
of the Mississippi, but could not find the river, and sailed 
on to Texas. Here he was murdered, and his colony 
was broken up by sickness and starvation. 

137. The First French Settlement within the north- 
western United States was the mission of St. Mary, near 
Sault Ste. Marie, now in Michigan. It was established 
in 1668 (§ 19). Other French missions were gradually 
established at different points in the northwest, but none 
of them came to be important places. 

138. French Colonization within the United States really 
began in 1699, when UTberville was sent by way of the 
Gulf of Mexico to find the mouth of the Mississippi. He 
found it, and fixed a settlement at Biloxi, within the 
present State of Mississippi. In 1702, he removed it to 
Mobile, which became his capital. In 17 16, a French 



I763J 



THE FRENCH POSSESSIONS 



85 




company, the 

Mississippi 

Company, 

■j\ obtained a 

grant of 

Louisiana; and in 1718, it sent 

a colony and founded the city 

of New Orleans, which soon 

became the principal settlement 

in the Mississippi valley. 

139. The French Possessions 
in North America had thus be- 
come very large before 1750. 
To secure them, the French 
had erected a chain of some 
sixty forts, stretching from New 
Orleans to Montreal, many of 
which have since become im- 
portant towns. The present 
cities of New Orleans, Natchez, Vincennes, Fort Wayne, 
Toledo, Detroit, Ogdensburg, and Montreal are near 



Gulf of Mexico 



86 THE STRUGGLE FOR ENGLISH SUPREMACY [iTS^ 

enough to the sites of some of these old forts to mark out 
the general course of the chain. Back of it, toward the 
Mississippi and the great lakes, were other forts, as at 
Mackinaw and Peoria. Not all of these forts have grown 
into cities: some of them have entirely disappeared. One 
of these is Kaskaskia, on the river of the same name, which 
was long the most important place in what is now the 
State of Illinois. 

140.* The Weakness of the French empire in America 
was in the fewness of its inhabitants in comparison with 
the extent of its territory. The whole population of New 
France, including Canada, was only about 100,000 in 
1750, while the population of the English colonies was 
nearly fifteen times as large (§ 129). Within the present 
territory of the United States, east of the Mississippi, there 
were perhaps not more than 7,500 Frenchmen, and most 
of these were fur-traders or adventurers, strong enough 
to keep the Indians in check, but not numerous enough 
to settle the country. France had never tried to build up 
its colonies in the same way that England had done, by 
peopling the country with settlers and their families, and 
developing agriculture as well as trade. In consequence, 
the French colonies in America were much more depend- 
ent upon France than the English colonies w^ere upon 
England. Then, too, New France was governed by 
officials sent from France, many of whom cared nothing 
for the country, and were often corrupt. But the French 
commanders were energetic and skilful in defending 
themselves and harassing the English, and had, more- 
over, the friendship of the Indians; while their geo- 
graphical position was one difficult to attack, but rela- 
tively easy to defend. 

141. The Ohio Company. — Just as Raleigh's unsuccess- 
ful colonies came before the successful settlement of the 



1763] THE FRENCH ON THE OHIO 87 

coast, so a number of unsuccessful l^nglish land com- 
panies came before the successful settlement of the g^reat 
West. Their object uas to buy up vast tracts of land at 
a low price, induce settlers to move thither by givinij 
them part of the land, and thus make the rest of the land 
so valuable as richly to repay all expenses. One of the 
earliest of these land companies, the Ohio Compan)% was 
organized in 1749 by some London merchants and some 
leading Virginians. Its lands lay in western Pennsylvania, 
which was then claimed by Virginia (§ 79). The com- 
pany at once sent out surveyors and traders, and began 
opening roads for emigrants. 

142. The French took the alarm as soon as the Ohio 
Company was formed, and sent men to secure the country 
between the Alleghanies and their chain of forts. In 
1753, they erected a strong fort at Presque Isle, where 
Erie now stands, and prepared to build a new chain of 
forts southward, toward the Ohio River. Governor Din- 
widdle, of Virginia, determined to send an agent to 
remonstrate with the French commander. George Wash- 
ington (§ 294), then a Virginia land-surveyor, not quite 
twenty-two years old, but already known for his prudence 
and clearheadedness, was selected as the agent. He made 
his way through the wintry wilderness up the Potomac 
River to the Monongahela, down that river to its junction 
with the Alleghany, and up the Alleghany until he met 
the French commander. That officer refused to leave the 
disputed territory, and Washington returned with what 
was really a declaration of war. ^ 

^ The " French and Indian War" which followed was at first entirely an 
American war : hostilities did not break out in Europe until 1756 (§ 147). 



8.B THE STRUGGLE FOR ENGLISH SUPREMACY [1750 



(2) The French and India)! War. 

143. Virginia had raised about 400 troops in the mean 
time, and Washington, who knew the country well, was 
put in command of them, with the rank of lieutenant- 
colonel.' He turned back with them on the road which 
he had just travelled, for the purpose of protecting a fort 
which the Ohio Company was building at the junction of 
the Alleghany and Monongahela rivers, where Pittsburgh 
now stands. Both parties knew very well the importance 
of this place, and were pushing to secure it. The French- 
men won in the race, and captured and strengthened the 
fort, which they named Fort Duquesne. They then 
passed on to attack Washington, who was coming down 
the Monongahela River. 

144. The First Fight of the war followed their meeting. 
Washington, with a part of his force, met an advance 
party of the French and Indians, and killed or captured 
nearly all of them. But the French main body was so 
much superior in numbers that he moved back a few miles 
up the Monongahela, to a fort which he named Fort 
Necessity. Here he surrendered, July 4, 1754, on con- 
dition that he and his men might return to Virginia. He 
had done so well with the small force at his command, 
that he became Virginia's principal military officer for the 
rest of the war. 

145. The English Colonies were now all acting together 
for the first time in their history. There were South 
Carolina troops with Washington at Fort Necessity; and 
all the colonies voted money, men, and arms to help 
Virginia. Heretofore the colonies had been dragged into 

^ At first the colonel in command was a man named Frye. But he died on 
the road, leaving the command to Washington. 



1763] THE FRENCH AND INDIAN IV A R 89 

wars by England ; now they were disposed to make war 
on their own account, for they all felt that this western 
territory was necessary to their future growth. The 
British Government was at first disposed to let them fight 
it out for themselves, and advised them to form a plan of 
united action. Accordingly, in 1754, Maryland, Penn- 
sylvania, New York, and the New England colonies sent 
delegates to a meeting at Albany. Here the ' ' Albany 
plan of union," proposed by Benjamin Franklin, was 
agreed upon. The Albany plan proposed a congress of 
not more than seven or less than two delegates from each 
colony, according to the colony's proportion of taxes paid ; 
and a governor general, appointed by the king, with 
the power to veto (forbid) any law of the congress which 
he should consider wrong or unwise. But it looked so 
much like an American government, independent of Great 
Britain, that the British Government rejected it; while it 
gave the king so much power that the colonies rejected it 
also. It is important, however, as a step towards union. 
146. England and France both began to send troops to 
America, for both knew that war must soon come. The 
colonies also were everywhere stirring with warlike prep- 
arations. In June, 1755, a force of British regulars and 
provincial (colonial) troops sailed from Boston, and 
captured the few remaining French forts in Acadia (Nova 
Scotia). From this time the whole of Acadia (Nova 
Scotia and New Brunswick) became English territory, as 
it still remains. The expedition was disgraced by an act 
of harshness on the part of the P^nglish. The French 
inhabitants were ordered to assemble at their churches. 
They were then seized and sent southward along the 
coast to different English colonies ; and their houses and 
crops were burned to prevent their return to their homes. 
In the same month that Acadia was taken, General Brad- 



90 THE STRUGGLE FOR ENGLISH SUPREMACY [175° 

dock, a brave, obstinate, and self-confident British officer, 
marched from Virginia through Pennsylvania against Fort 
Duquesne. He expected to fight the French and Indians 
in line of battle, and refused to heed the advice of Wash- 
ington, who was one of his aides, to send scouts in 
advance. Within a few miles of Fort Duquesne, the 
French and Indians completely surprised Braddock's long 
line, killed him and more than half his men, and chased 
the rest for miles on the road back to Virginia. The only 
real resistance was made by Washington and his Vir- 
ginians, who fought from behind trees in Indian fashion, 
and checked the pursuit. A month later, a New York 
expedition against Crown Point, under Sir William John- 
son, defeated the French and Indians, under Baron 
Dieskau, near the southern end of Lake George, but did 
no more. The year 1755 thus closed badly for the 
English. 

147. Declaration of War was made by both England and 
France in the spring of 1756, so that the war was no 
longer confined to America. The British Government was 
at first very inefficient, and sent out incompetent officers 
to America, so that little was accomplished during the 
two years 1756 and 1757. The luiglish and provincial 
forces ^ marched hither and thither, fighting little, and 
gradually drawing back before their enemies. The 
French were now commanded by a great soldier, Mont- 
calm. His forces were not large, but he made the most 
of them. P2ach English force acted for itself, while he 
used all his men together against one point after another. 
He thus, for two years, kept the English out of the dis- 
jDuted territory, captured the few forts which they had 

' By provincial troops are meant the soldiers furnished by the provinces or 
colonies. The British troops in America in 1758 numbered about 50,000. Of 
these, 28,000 were provincials, and 22,000 were regulars. 



1763] 



WILLIAM PITT 



91 



built along' the northern border of New York, and gained 
all the Indians to his support. 

148. The Year 1758 changed all this. One of the 
greatest men in English history, William Pitt, was called 
to the head of the I^ritish 

Government, and every- 
thing felt his influence. 
Inefficient officers were 
removed, and the whole 
English force was thrown 
upon the French at three 
points. In July, a sea ex- 
pedition captured Louis- 
burg, on Cape Breton 
Island (§ 72). In No- 
vember, a land expedition 
captured Fort Duquesne 
without resistance, and 
renamed it Fort Pitt (now 
Pittsburgh). The only 
failure of the year was that of an expedition against 
Ticonderoga, where Montcalm commanded in person. 
The British assaulted the French works, and were defeated 
after losing about 1,600 men. But a part of the English 
force drove the French out of northwestern New York, 
and captured Fort PVontenac, on the Canada side of Lake 
Ontario, where Kingston now stands. 

149. These Successes were largely due to the manner 
in which Pitt brought in the colonies to help the regular 
troops. Provincial troops took part in all these expedi- 
tions, and thus learned to make war and to have confi- 
dence in themselves. Many of the American officers who 
afterward took part in the Revolution received their 
training in the campaigns of the French and Indian War. 




William Pitt. 



92 



THE STRUGGLE FOR ENGLISH SUPREMACY [i759 



150. The Year 1759 was still more successful. It was 
known that the English intended to attack Quebec this 
year, and Montcalm was forced to draw off most of his 




jAMEb W'uLFE. 



troops to defend that city. Consequentl)% Ticonderoga, 
Crown Point, and a strong French fort, Fort Niagara, fell 
into the hands of the English without much resistance. 
From Louisburg the English, under General Wolfe, sailed 



I759J 



QUEBEC 



93 



up the St. Lawrence River to attack Quebec. Their 
ships gave them command of the river, but above them 
rose the lofty cHffs on whose top the fortifications of 
Quebec had been built. The French could not be tempted 
to come out of their stronghold; and, after a siege of 




Quebec. 



nearly three months, the English were very much dis- 
couraged. Finally Wolfe decided to climb the cliffs and 
find the enemy. 

151. Quebec. — On the appointed night, Wolfe's army 
floated down the river in boats, and was landed on the 
little river-beach at the foot of the cliffs. All through the 
night the men were clambering up a path which the 
French had not taken the trouble to guard ; the sailors 
dragged up eight or ten small cannon; and, in the morn- 
ing of September 13, the English army was drawn up on 



94 THE STRUGGLE FOR ENGLISH SUPREMACY [1750 

the Plains of Abraham, in front of the upper city. There 
were still walls to be attacked; but Montcalm, startled by 
the sudden appearance of the Ent^lish, moved his army 
out, and fought a battle on the open plain. Both Wolfe 
and Montcalm were killed, but the French were com- 
pletely defeated. Five days afterward, the city was sur- 
rendered. Both generals lived long enough to know the 
result of the battle. Wolfe, when told of it, said, "Then 
I die happy." Montcalm, when told that he must die, 
said, "So much the better; I shall not live to see the 
surrender of Quebec. 

152. The Conquest of Canada followed in 1760. Mon- 
treal surrendered to the English. Then the other French 
forts were given up^s rapidly as English troops could be 
sent to take them. The French troops were sent home 
to France, and the French dominion in North America 
was over.^ Many of the Indians disliked to see the 
British troops holding the forts in their territory. In 
1763, Pontiac, an Ottawa chief living near Detroit, formed 
a league of Indian tribes to destroy the newcomers. 
But the plan was revealed by a friendly Indian ; the attack 
on Detroit was beaten back; and the Indians, after some 
hard fighting, begged for peace. 

153. Spain entered the war, in 1762, to assist France. 
In that year, an English expedition, with many provincial 
troops in it, sailed to the Spanish island of Cuba, and 
captured the rich city of Havana. The people of the 
colonies now sent out privateers against Spanish com- 
merce ; and the growth of the colonies was shown by 
the fact that their privateers in this war outnumbered, in 

' Though the war was over on the continent of North America, it con- 
tinued elsewhere for about three years. England and France were still 
fighting on the ocean, and wherever either could reach the other's do- 
minions. 



[1763 



RESULTS OF THE IV AR 



95 



vessels, guns, and men, the whole English navy of 150 
years before, when the colonies were founded. 

154.* The Peace of Paris closed the war in 1763. Great 
Britain had completely conquered both France and Spain, 
and the two conquered nations consented to surrender to 
her the whole of North America east of the Mississippi. 
Spain gave up Florida to Great Britain in exchange 
for Havana (§ 153). France gave up practically all 
her possessions in North 
America, giving her con- 
queror. Great Britain, all 
the portion east of the 
Mississippi 
River, and 




The French War. 



her ally, Spain, 
the portion west 
of that river, in- 
cluding the city of New 
Orleans. In October a 
ro}'al proclamation was 
issued, to provide for the 
government of the region 
acquired from France, and regulate trade with the Indians. 
The territory ceded to Great Britain was divided into four 
governments, Quebec, East Florida, West Florida, and 
Grenada. The southern boundary of Quebec, and the 
northern boundaries of the Floridas, were followed later in 
defining the northern and southern boundaries of the 
United States in 17S3 (§ 263). The southern boundary 
of Georgia was extended to the St. Mary's River. The 



96 THE STRUGGLE FOR ENGLISH SUPREMACY [175° 

region between Quebec and the Floridas, and west of the 
Appalachian Mountains, was reserved as an Indian coun- 
try, and the governors of the Enghsh colonies were for- 
bidden to make any grants of land therein. The Indian 
trade was declared to be free to all English subjects, on 
the condition of obtaining a license from a governor. 

155. Louisiana. — Spain kept the name of Louisiana for 
the territory west of the Mississippi River, which she had 
received from France. It covered, in general, the great 
region between the Rocky Mountains and the Mississippi 
River, from British America to the Gulf of Mexico (§ 334). 
Almost all this region, however, was then a wilderness, 
excepting small portions of the present States of Louisiana 
and Missouri. New Orleans was the only important city. 
St. Genevieve was the oldest settlement in Missouri. 
St. Louis was founded in 1764.* 

156. The Leading Events of the war are as follows: 
1754—7: French Success. 

1754 : Surrender of Fort Necessity §i44 

Albany Plan of Union 145 

1755: Braddock's defeat 146 

Conquest of Nova Scotia (English suc- 
cess) 146 

Battle of Lake George (English success) 146 

1756: War declared 147 

1756-7: General French success 146 

1758-63: English Success. 

1758: Pitt becomes head of the British Gov- 
ernment 148 

Capture of Louisburg 148 

Capture of Fort Diiquesne 148 

Battle of Ticonderoga (French success) 148 
1759: Capture of Ticonderoga, Crown Point, 

and Niagara 150 

Capture of Quebec 151 

1760: Conquest of Canada 152 

' One of the founders of St. I.ouis, Pierre Chouteau, lived in the city until 
his death in 1849, and witnessed the enormous changes in its condition. 



1763] STATE OF THE COLONIES 97 

1762: Capture of Havana §^53 

1763 : Pontiac's conspiracy 152 

Peace of Paris 154 

(3) Stafr of the Colonics. 

157. The Population of the colonies was about 2,000,000 
in 1760; and the colonies had grown not only in num- 
bers, but in strength and confidence. Their men had 
fought beside British regulars, and had sometimes held 
their ground when the regulars had run away. Thirty 
thousand of them hid given up their lives in the war, and 
many of the colonists were inclined to feel and say that 
the colonies had done more than their share of the fight- 
ing. None of the colonies had yet spread beyond the 
Alleghanies, but a few adventurous hunters were in the 
habit of crossing the mountains yearly ; and they brought 
back such favorable reports of the beauty and fertility of 
the new country that settlements there were begun within 
a few years. ^ 

158. In Wealth, the colonies were growing still faster, 
and they began to look like a well-settled country. The 
people had become comfortable and even prosperous, and 
some of them were considered wealthy. Agriculture had 
improved, and a great variety of crops was grown. The 
Navigation Acts (§ 6']') had not destroyed trade. In 
1700, the colonies had sent to England about $1,300,000 
worth of produce, and received about the same amount of 
English manufactures. In 1760, they sent about four 
times as much, and received nearly seven times as much. 
All trade to other countries than England was illegal, 
but was nevertheless carried on largely. Newspapers and 

• The first settlement in Tennessee, led by James Robertson, was made in 
1768; the first in Kentucky, led by Daniel Boone, in 1769. There was no 
eftbrt to settle the country north of the Ohio River for nearly twenty years to 
come. 



98 THE STRUGGLE FOR ENGLISH SUPREMACY [175° 

books had become common since the first American 
printing-press had been set up at Cambridge, in 1639. 
The estabhshment of King's College (now Columbia) in 
New York City, in 1754, increased the number of colleges 
to six.^ 

159. The Spirit of Union in the colonies had grown still 
more rapidly. During the war, the colonists had at first 
called themselves provincials, to distinguish themselves 
from the British. Now, for the first time, some of them 
began to call themselves Americans, instead of English- 
men, Virginians, or New-Englanders. The colonies were 
no longer altogether separate peoples. They had come 
to have common interests and a common spirit, and they 
were now very certain to unite against any enemy that 
was dangerous to all of them, just as they had united 
against the F'rench power of the north and west. There 
was no longer any need to unite against the French ; but 
it was certain that they would act toward any new enemy, 
even their mother country, just as they had acted toward 
the French. It ought to have been evident in England 
that the colonies in North America had come to be so 
strong and so united that it was now needful for the 
British Government to be wise and prudent, in order that 
it might not make itself appear to be their enemy. 

160. The British Government was neither wise nor 
prudent. Most of its power was in the hands of the 
Parliament, which was at that time not elected by the 
whole people. By artful contrivance or by accident, the 
laws of election were such that a few rich men, nobles or 



' The six colleges were Ilarvanl, in Massachusetts, founded in 1636 ; 
William and Mary, in Virginia, in 1692 ; Yale, in Connecticut, in 1701 ; the 
College of New Jersey (now Princeton), in 1746 ; King's (now Columbia), in 
New York, in 1754; and the University of Pennsylvania, at Philadelphia, in 
1779 (§ 126). 



1763] T/1XATION OF THE COLONIES 99 

landowners, controlled the election of most of the mem- 
bers of the House of Commons. In most matters, these 
richer men were divided into two parties, which opposed 
one another. In ret^ard to American affairs, however, 
they were now united, by reason of heavy taxes, in a 
claim which could not help making them the enemy of 
the colonies. 

161. Taxes in Great Britain were nov/ large, and most 
of them fell on the richer men. Heretofore Englishmen 
had thought little about America, considering it only a 
wilderness, from which no money could be obtained. 
Now they saw the colonies voting large sums of money 
to carry on the war, and they at once began to think of 
lightening their own taxes by laying taxes on the colonies. 
The Parliament had forced the kings to yield to it the 
power to lay taxes in Great Britain : it now began to claim 
a right to lay taxes on the colonies, even against the will 
of the colonies themselves. The English debt^ had 
steadily increased from about $3,300,000 in 1689 to about 
$700,000,000 in 1763. Great Britain claimed that much 
of the debt had arisen in defending the colonies from the 
French, and that the colonies ought to be willing to be 
taxed for a part of the interest. The colonies claimed 
that neither they nor the French colonies had desired 
war, that they had been dragged into war by France and 
England, and that the English colonies had fully paid 
their share of the expense. At any rate, they were 
determined not to submit to be taxed by another people. 

162. The Feeling of the Colonies was that the claim of 
the Parliament was unjust. Each colony was ruled by 

' A nntion very often provides for wars or other unexpected expenses by 
borrowing money. Tlie written promises to pay are called bonds, and the 
nation pays interest on them yearly, raising the money for the payments by 
taxes. 



loo THE STRUGGLE FOR ENGLISH SUPREMACY [175° 

its own assembly, or legislature, elected by nearly the 
whole people. As the representatives of the people, 
these assemblies alone had always taxed the people; and 
the king's governors had only named the amount which 
they desired. The colonists had thus always taxed 
themselves, through their assemblies, as the people of 
Great Britain had taxed themselves, through their Parlia- 
ment. The colonists were not allowed to send repre- 
sentatives to Parliament. P2nglishmen have never sub- 
mitted willingly to be taxed by a body in \vhich they are 
not represented, and the colonists were already too strong 
to be forced to submit. On this question of "Taxation 
without Representation," the Parliament and the colonies 
were now to quarrel for twelve years until force was used: 
then came the Revolutionary War. 

Topics for Further Study. 

1. The government of New France. 

2. The exploration of the Mississippi. 

3. The early life of Washington. 

4. Plans of colonial union. 

5. The expulsion of the Acadians. 

6. The Seven Years' War in Europe. 

Supplementary Reading. 

Sources. — MacDonald's Select Chai-ters gives extracts from 
the treaties of Ryswick (No. 45), Utrecht (No. 47), Aix-la- 
Chapelle (No. 51), and Paris (No. 54); the royal proclamation 
of 1763 (No. 55); and the Albany plan of union (No. 52). 
Texts of a number of other plans of union are collected in 
Ajnerican Hisiory Leaflets, No. 14. The extracts in Hart's 
Contemporaries, vol. 11., chaps. 1-20, deal with various aspects 
of the period 1689-1763 ; chaj)s. 17-20 relate to the French and 
Indian wars. 

Narrative Accounts. — The period from 1700— 1750 has been 
scantily treated by historians. Parkman's Old Regime iti 
Canada, Frontenac and A^cw France, Half-century 0/ Cotjflici, 



1763] SUPPLEMENTARY READING lOi 

Moii/calm and Wol/e, and Conspiracy of Poniiac are of the first 
importance, and tell with great skill the history of New France; 
the same author's Pioneers of France in the New World and 
fesiiits in North America contain also more or less which falls 
within the limits of this chapter. On the English side there is 
nothing equally good; the most scholarly is Winsor's Narrative 
and Critical History, vol. v., chaps, i, 7, and 8. The separate 
accounts in Lodge's Short History extend to 1765. Useful 
brief narratives are Hart's Forttiation of the Unio?i, chaps, i 
and 2; Sloane's Fretich War and the Revolution, chaps. 1-9. 
Early schemes of colonial union are discussed in Frothingham's 
Pise of the Republic, chap. 4. 

Illustrative Literature. — Franklin's Antobiographv ; Thack- 
eray's The Virginians; Cooper's Leather-stocking Tales; Gilbert 
Parker's The Seats of the Mighty; Longfellow's Evangeline ; 
C. G. D. Roberts's The Forge in the Forest; J. E. Cooke's llie 
Youth offeffersoji, Fairfax, and Doctor Van Dyke. 



CHAPTER VIII 

COLONIAL RESISTANCE 

1763-1775 

(i) TJic Stamp Act. 

163. British Regulation of the Colonies. — Laws to regu- 
late the colonies and their affairs had frequentl}' been 
passed by Parliament. Some of these, such as the act to 
establish a post-office system, were useful to the colonies, 
and were accepted by them ^\■illingly. Others, such as 
the Navigation Acts and the acts to forbid manufactures 
in the colonies (§ 6'j'), they had not been strong enough 
to resist openly, but had evaded or disobeyed as far as 
possible. Of late years, whenever the British Govern- 
ment had tried to enforce these laws, it had failed. In 
1 761, when the customs officers in Massachusetts tried to 
obtain writs of assistance from the courts, empowering 
them to search houses and stores for smuggled goods, 
James Otis (§ 169) made an impassioned plea against such 
a violation of the hereditary liberties of Englishmen. In 
1764, soon after peace was made, Parliament announced 
its intention to raise a revenue in the colonies. It went 
no further at the time, but waited to see how the colonies 
would receive the proposition. But the colonies were, as 
usual, very busy with their own affairs, and paid little 
attention to the declaration of Parliament. 

102 



775] 



THE STAMP ACT 




r/'> 









British Stamp. 



164. The Stamp Act was passed by Parliament in tlie 
spring of 1765. It had been prepared by the head of the 
British Government, George Gren- 
ville, and was to go into force in the 
following November. I'^rom that 
time, no newspapers or almanacs 
could be published in the colonies, no 
marriage-certificate could be given, 
and no documents could be used in 
lawsuits, unless stamps, bought from 
British government agents, were 
placed on them, or the documents 
themselves were printed on stamped paper. ^ Laws were 
also passed to enforce the Navigation Acts, and to send 
soldiers to America. It was by no means certain how 
long the peace with France (§ i 54) would last, and England 
thought it well to keep a few thousand troops in the 
colonies. The expenses of the soldiers were to be paid 
out of the money received from the sale of the stamps. 

165. In America, when the news of the Stamp Act 
reached it, there was no longer any want of attention. 
All the colonies hummed with the signs of resistance. 
Able and eloquent men, like James Otis in Massachusetts, 
and Patrick Henry in Virginia,- only spoke for the whole 



' .Such stamp-dulies are one of the easiest ways of paying taxes. Tliey 
have been used since, and are still used, in this country. We submit to such 
taxes now because they are laid by ourselves through our representatives, and, 
if the people think the taxes unjust, they can change the taxes by changing 
their representatives. The colonists resisted the taxes because they were laid 
by the representatives of another people. They knew that, if they submitted 
in this little matter, they would soon be taxed in far heavier ways, and yet 
would never be able to change the representatives or the taxes. 

^ Patrick Henry, a young lawyer and brilliant orator, was a member of the 
Virginia assembly. In his speech on the Stamp Act, he named several tyrants 
who had been killed, "Ciissar," said he, " had his Brutus, Charles I. his 
Cromwell, and George*TlI.»<— " He was interrupted by cries of " Treason ! " 



104 



COLON ML RESISTANCE 



[1763 



people in declaring that the colonics would never submit. 

The assemblies, as fast 
IS they met, declared 
that Parliament had no 
11 jht to tax the colonies. 
\ssociations, called Sons 
of Liberty, were formed 
to help the resistance. 
As soon as the stamps 
were sent over, mobs 
seized and burned them, 
or prevented them from 
being offered for sale ; and 
the stamp-officers were 
frightened into resigning. 
When the day came for 
the act to go into force, 
there were no stamps to 
be bought, and no officers 
to sell them. The Stamp 
Act had failed. 
166. The Stamp-Act Congress, the first sign of united 
resistance (§ 159), met at New York City, October 7, 
1765. It had been proposed by Virginia and Massa- 
chusetts about the same time. All but four of the colonies 
sent delegates to it; and all the colonies supported it. 
It had no authority to make laws; but it agreed on a 
declaration of the rights of the colonies, and sent petitions 
to the king and Parliament to respect those rights. The 
language of the congress was carefully made as gentle as 




Patrick Henry 



When the noise died away, he concluded : " George III. may profit by their 
example. If this be treason, make the most of it." His resolutions, adopted 
by the assembly, were the boldest declaration of colonial rights that had yet 
been made. 



17 75] THE BRITISH GOl^ERNMENT 105 

possible; but its meeting was evidently a sign of danger, 
if the attempt should be made to punish any one for resist- 
ing the Stamp Act. 

167. The British Government was taken aback by the 
stir in America. English manufacturers petitioned for 
the repeal of the Stamp Act, for the American merchants 
and people had agreed not to buy any more English goods 
until the repeal should take place. Pitt and other friends 
of the colonies in Parliament urged the repeal. Finally, 
there was a change of ministry in Great Britain, 
another political party came into power, and early in 1766 
the act was repealed. Parliament still declared its rigJit 
to tax the colonies, if it should wish to do so; but the 
Americans were convinced that it A\ould never again 
attempt to do so, and were willing to make the repeal 
pleasant for Great Britain. And so, for more than a year, 
they endeavored in every way to show their affection for 
the mother country. Some difficulties yet remained. 
The New York assembly refused to furnish supplies to 
the British troops, as Parliament had directed ; and the 
assemblies of some of the other colonies engaged in small 
quarrels with their governors ; but the colonists in general 
were very anxious to show that they were " loyal subjects 
of the king — God bless him! 

168. The Right of Parliament to regulate the trade of 
the colonies had not hitherto been denied by the colonists 
(§ dj). They had not thought very much about the 
matter, but they knew that Parliament paid for a large 
navy to protect trade, and they agreed that Parliament 
had the right to regulate the trade which was thus pro- 
tected. They had therefore submitted to the Navigation 
Acts, though they obeyed them as little as possible, 
l^ut the unfortunate Stamp Act had compelled the colo- 
nists to think about the matter, and many of them began 



io6 



COLONIAL RESISTANCE 



[1763 




George III. 



to think that a ParHament in which they were not repre- 
sented had no more right to interfere with their property 

on the sea than on the land. 
At first, they only suggested 
different means by which 
members from the colonies 
might be admitted to Parlia- 
ment. Many eminent men in 
Great Britain desired such an 
arrangement, and it is possi- 
ble that it might have been 
successful. But the king, an 
honest but very obstinate 
man, had lofty ideas of his 
own dignity, and was deter- 
mined to make the colonies 
submit without debate. His friends in Parliament now 
began a new scheme, which increased all the previous 
difficulties a hundredfold. 

169. Commercial Taxation. — In 1767, Parliament passed 
an act to lay taxes on tea and a few other articles exported 
to America; another to send revenue commissioners to 
America, to secure obedience to the law ; and another 
ordering the New York assembly to pass no more laws 
until it should furnish supplies to the soldiers (§ 167). 
These acts left the colonists no choice. They had now 
no time to devise plans for being represented in Parlia- 
ment. Their first business was to resist what they now 
began to consider a foreign tyranny. 

As Massachusetts was the leading commercial colony, 
much of the first resistance centred there. Its leaders 
were James Otis, an eloquent speaker, who afterward 
became insane; John Hancock, a Boston merchant; John 
Adams, a }'oung lawyer, afterward President; Samuel 



775] 



IVHIGS AND TORIES 



107 



Adams, one of the first advocates of independence; and 
Benjamin Franklin, the colony's agent and adviser in 




London. The leading royalists were Governor Thomas 
Hutchinson, a native of the colony, and his brother-in-law 
Andrew Oliver, one of the council. 

170. Whigs and Tories. — For nearly six years the colo- 
nists kept up a peaceable resistance to the taxing acts of 
Parliament. The resistance took the shape of a general 
agreement by the people not to buy, sell, or use the 
articles on which the taxes had been laid, so as to avoid 



COLONIAL RESISTANCE 



[1763 



paying the taxes. Those who adopted this plan wilhngly, 
and who supported the colonies against the mother 
country, took the name of Whigs. Those who refused 
to resist the mother country in any way were called 
Tories.^ As the Whigs were in a majority, and were 
very much in earnest, the few Tories were compelled by 
bodily fear to join in the general agreement. 

171. The Six Years' Struggle, though it was meant to 
be peaceable, was continually resorting to open violence. 

In 1768, the revenue 
commissioners in Boston 
seized John Hancock's 
sloop Liberty, and a mob 
chased them to a British 
frigate in the harbor. 
Four British regiments, 
under General Gage, 
then took possession of 
Boston. There was con- 
stant bad feeling between 
the Boston people and 
the soldiers, or "red- 
coats"; insulting lan- 
guage was used on both 
sides ; and there were a 
number of street-fights 
with sticks, fists, or 
snowballs. All this re- 
sulted in the so-called 
"Boston Massacre," March 5. ly/O, in which the sol- 
diers fired on the people, killed three, and wounded 
many others. In New York, a little earlier, the people 

1 Whig and Tory liad for many years been the names of the two great 
jK)lilical parties in England (§ 479)- 




John Hancock. 



17 75] P/1RUAMENT AND THE ASSEMBLIES 109 

beat the soldiers in a street-fight. In North CaroHna, 
the governor defeated a part of the people in a pitched 
battle (§ 94). In 1772, a number of the Rhode Island 
people captured and burned a ro}-al vessel, the Gas pec, 
which had been unpleasantly active in collecting duties 
from vessels belonging to Providence. Those who took 
part in such affairs were evidently growing bolder, and 
any attempt to punish them, if they had been caught, 
would have met with resistance from the colonies, and 
that would have been war. 

172. Parliament and the Assemblies. — All these affairs 
occasioned much anger in Parliament, though it was not 
easy to see what was to be done to prevent or punish 
them. Angry resolutions declaring the Massachusetts 
people rebels were passed, together with acts to make the 
collection of taxes more certain. The assemblies answered 
by declaring their own rights, and den}-ing the right of 
Parliament to pass any such laws. The colonists cared 
very much more for the resolutions of thcirjotvn assemblies 
than they did for those of Parliament, and their resistance 
became so much the bolder. In 1772, Parliament ordered 
those who had burned the Gaspee to be sent to England 
for trial, if they should be caught. Again the assemblies 
denied the right of Parliament to pass such a law ; and 
the colonists were ready to resist the enforcement of it. 
The plain question had come to be whether Parliament 
was or was not to govern the colonies as it saw fit. 

173. The Tea Tax. — In 1770, Parliament tried a change 
of plan. The taxes were taken off all the articles except 
tea, and the tax on tea was fixed at only threepence, or 
about six cents, a pound. Arrangements were made with 
English tea-merchants, in 1773, to send cargoes of tea to 
America at a price threepence lower than that which had 
always been paid, so that the price would be no greater 



no COLONIAL RESISTylNCE [1763 

than it had always been, even after the tax was paid. It 
was hoped that in this way, when the tea Avas distributed 
throLiL^di the colonies, not only the Tories, but the women, 
and all who liked to drink tea, would buy it at the old 
price, without seeing that they were really paying the 
taxes and obeying Parliament. 

174. This Plan was an ingenious way of getting around 
the difficulty, but the Americans resisted with a kind of 
angry contempt. At Charleston they stored the cargoes 
of tea in damp cellars, where the tea was soon spoiled. 
At New York, Philadelphia, and other places, they refused 
to allow the tea-ships to land their cargoes, and sent them 
back to England. At Boston they tried to do the same 
thing, but the British officers would not allow the ships 
to leave the harbor. The Boston people therefore took a 
more violent means, which is commonly called the 
' ' Boston Tea Party. ' ' An orderly mob, disguised as 
Indians, boarded the ships, December 16, 1773, and 
threw the 340 chests of tea into the harbor. In one way 
or another, at all the towns on the coast, the colonists 
were successful in their efforts to prevent the tea from 
being distributed through the colonies to tempt the people 
to buy it. Parliament was again defeated. 

175. The Four Intolerable Acts. — Parliament now so 
completely lost its temper that it took the last steps to 
open conflict. It passed, among other measures, four acts 
which the colonies could not help resisting. The first 
was the Boston Port Act: it forbade all vessels to leave 
or enter Boston harbor. Its object was to punish the 
Boston people by destroying their trade ; but its effect was 
to anger all the colonists against Parliament. The second 
was the Massachusetts Government Act: it changed the 
charter of that qolony so as to take away the government 
from the people, and give it to the king's agent. The 



1775] THE FOUR INTOLERABLE ACTS m 

effect of this was to unite all the colonies in resistance, for 
they all felt that they would soon meet the same treat- 
ment themselves if they allowed Massachusetts to be so 
treated. The third was the Administration of Justice 
Act: it ordered that Americans who should be charged 
with murder because of any efforts to enforce the laws 
should be sent to England for trial. The fourth was the 
Quebec Act: it made the country north of the Ohio and 
east of the Mississippi a part of Canada. Its effect was 
also to unite the colonies, for they felt that this territory 
belonged to them ; that the king had given it to them 
(§ 25), and they had helped to conquer it from the French ; 
and that the Parliament had no right to take it away. 
Parliament expected to enforce these acts by its standing 
army in the colonies (§ 164). 

176. The Excitement in America now rose higher than 
it had ever done before. The assemblies passed resolu- 
tions severely condemning Parliament, and many of them 
requested the people to keep the day of the shutting up of 
Boston as a day of fasting and prayer. In most of the 
royal colonies the assemblies spoke^ so boldly that the 
governors dismissed them, and they did not meet again 
as part of the royal government. The excitement was so 
great, and the calls for a Continental Congress ^ were so 
numerous, that delegates were chosen almost by common 
consent, and without a summons. Georgia alone took 
no part in the Congress, though her people s}'mpathized 
with it.~ 

177. The First Continental Congress met at Philadelphia, 
September 5, 1774. It agreed upon a new declaration 

^ " Continental" had already come to have very much the same meaning 
that " American " has now. It mQAni gc'fwrai, belonging to the whole con- 
tinent, not to one colony or a part of them. Thus the Stamp-Act Congress 
(§ 166), from only nine of the colonies, was not a " Continental " Congress. 

^ The action of the governor prevented the appointment of delegates. 



112 COLONIAL RESISTANCE [1763 

of rights : it asserted the right of the colonies to govern 
and tax themselves, and named eleven acts of Parliament 
which were attacks upon these rights. It sent an address 
to the people of Great Britain and a petition to the king, 
but did not now petition Parliament. It drew up an 
agreement, called The Association, which was signed by 
very many of the colonists, not to buy goods from Great 
Britain, or sell to British merchants, until the objection- 
able acts were repealed by Parliament. It commended 
the people of Massachusetts for their peaceable resistance, 
and declared that, if Parliament should use force to make 
Massachusetts submit, all the other colonies would use 
force to help her. Finally, it called a new Congress for 
the following May, and adjourned. 

178. Representation as a question had now taken a new 
form. At first, the colonies had demanded that Parlia- 
ment should not tax the colonies while the colonies were 
not represented in it ; that is, that there should be ' ' No 
Taxation without Representation. " Now they demanded 
that Parliament should pass no laws whatever about the 
colonies while the colonies were not represented in it; 
that is, that there should be "No Legislation without 
Representation. " 

179.* Suspension of Royal Government. — The people of 
the colonies were much more inclined to forcible resistance 
than was the Congress, whos'»» language, notwithstanding 
its firmness, had been temperate and restrained. Every- 
where there was much confusion. In New England, 
General Gage had been appointed governor of Massa- 
chusetts, and held Boston with a British garrison; but his 
authority was hardly recognized beyond his line of troops, 
and most of the work of government was carried on by 
the towns. Elsewhere, the royal governors attempted to 
suppress the colonial assemblies, and the people fell back 



1775] LEXINGTON AND CONCORD 113 

either upon their local governments, as in Massachusetts, 
or upon legislatures irregularly chosen. Committees of 
Correspondence, as they were called, were busy collecting 
arms and military supplies, organizing and drilling com- 
panies of militia, and preparing for war in case it should 
come. The feeling against Great Britain was most intense 
in Massachusetts, and it seemed likely that the first con- 
flict would occur there if Gage should attempt to enforce 
the acts of Parliament against the colony. It must be 
remembered, however, that all this vigorous resistance 
did not indicate any general desire for independence. 
The colonies were prepared to resist, by force if need be, 
demands of Great Britain which they regarded as illegal 
or unjust; but at heart the people still loved the mother 
country, and were not to assert their independence until, 
in the judgment of Congress, no other course was left to 
them. 

(2) Lexington and Concord. 

180. Massachusetts, at the opening of the year 1775, 
was much like a powder-magazine, which the first spark 
would explode. The provincial assembly, which now 
governed the colony, had collected powder and arms, 
and had ordered 20,000 "minute-men" to be enrolled 
and to be ready to march at a minute's warning. Gage, 
in Boston, felt so insecure^hat he began to erect fortifica- 
tions on the neck of land which joined the town to the 
mainland, and sent out spies into the surrounding country 
to find out what the people were doing. Finally, he dis- 
covered that military stores had been collected at Con- 
cord, a village about twenty miles from Boston. He 
ordered out 800 men to destroy them, and this was the 
spark which brought on the Revolutionary War. Secret 
as the movement was meant to be, signals of it were sent 



114 COLON UL RESISTANCE [1763 

by the Boston people to the mainland; and, all through 
the night, men were riding through the country, rousing 
the minute-men. 

181. Lexington is a village on the road between Boston 
and Concord. As the British marched into it, just before 
sunrise, April 19, 1775, they found about sixty half-armed 
minute-men assembled on the village green. There was 
a hasty order from the British officer. Major Pitcairn, a 
volley from his men, and a few answering shots. Eight 
of the minute-men were killed, many were wounded, and 
the rest dispersed. This was the first blood of the Revo- 
lution. The British then marched on to Concord, dispersed 
the minute-men who had collected there, and destroyed 
the supplies. They then prepared to return to Boston. 
By this time the whole country was up ; for miles around 
the church-bells were ringing wildly ; and the minute-men 
from the surrounding towns were hurrying toward Con- 
cord. 

182. The British Retreat was orderly at first, the troops 
steadily returning the fire which met them from every 
house, fence, and rock along the roadside. But the num- 
bers of the minute-men were increasing; their fire was 
deadly; and the retreat became more disorderly. At 
Lexington they met 900 fresh troops from Boston, with 
cannon, who sheltered them for a few minutes, while they 
lay on the ground and rested, "their tongues hanging 
out of their mouths, like dogs after a chase. ' ' The whole 
British force then set out for Boston. The minute-men 
kept up the pursuit as hotly as ever until, toward night, 
the worn-out regulars found shelter on the waterside, 
under the guns of the ships of war. ^ 

1 The British loss was 273 in killed, wounded, and missing. The rebels, 
as the British called the minute-men, lost 88. There were not more than 400 
of the minute-men engaged at any one time. 



1775] STATE OF THE COLONIES 115 

183. Boston was now besieged. Many of the minute- 
men, who had kept up the pursuit, remained in front of 
Boston to attack any of the regulars who might venture to 
come out. As the news of the fight spread abroad, men 
from the different New England colonies started for 
Boston, and within a few days the town was closely shut 
up, except by sea. This state of affairs was nothing else 
than war. The agents of Parliament had used force ; the 
Massachusetts men had used force in return ; and the other 
colonies were now to use force to help Massachusetts, as 
they had already declared they would do. The American 
Revolution had begun, and Avith it the Jiatioiial history of 
the United States of America (§ 190). 

(3) State of the Colonics. 

184. The Population of the Colonies was about 2,600,000 
in 1775. If this seems small, compared with the 70,000,- 
000 and more now dwelling in the United States, we must 
bear in mind that England and Wales contained only 
6,400,000 persons in 1750. And the English population 
increased very slowly, while that of the colonies was 
doubling steadily about every twenty-five years. 

Population has been wonderfully changed since 1775. 
The population of the " old thirteen " in 1775, and of the 
first thirteen States in 1890, was as follows: 



1775- 

Virginia 56^)0°° 

Massachusetts 360,000 

Pennsylvania 300,000 

North Carolina 260,000 

Maryland 220,000 

Connecticut 200,000 

South Carolina i(So,ooo 

New York , , , iSo,ooo 

New Jersey 130,000 

New Hampshire 80,000 

Rhode Island 50,000 

Delaware 40,000 

Georgia 30,000 



1090. 

New York 5.997,853 

Pennsylvania 5,258,014 

Illinois 3,826,35 1 

Ohio 3,672,316 

Missouri 2,679,184 

Massachusetts 2,238,943 

Texas 2,235,523 

Indiana 2, 192,404 

Michigan 2,093,889 

Iowa 1,911,896 

Kentucky 1,858,635 

peorgia i,S37>353 

Tennessee 1,767,518 



Ii6 COLONIAL RESISTANCE [1763 

Only four of the thirteen of 1775 appear in the first 
thirteen of 1 890. The population of the other States in 
1890 A\'ill be found in Appendix IV. 

185.* The Difficulty of Governing such a growing popu- 
lation, without allowing it any share in the government, 
would have been exceedingly great, even if nature had 
placed it close to Great Britain. It was far more difficult 
to govern it across a stormy ocean, 3,000 miles wide, 
over which troops had to be carried in sailing-vessels, 
often taking months to make the passage, or waiting 
weeks for fair weather. But Great Britain was governed 
at the time by men who represented the trading and 
aristocratic classes only, and who cared more about 
lightening their own taxes, and making a large profit out 
of the American trade, than they did about giving the 
colonies good government. These men saw no reason 
why America should not submit absolutely to the king and 
Parliament. The attempt to enforce obedience cost the 
British Empire the larger part of its American territory. 

186. In Wealth the colonies were still growing. Their 
trade with Great Britain and other countries had been 
injured by the troubles of the past twelve years. The 
British war-vessels on the coast no longer allowed foreign 
trade, but seized every vessel that took part in it ; and the 
colonists had ceased to trade with Great Britain in many 
articles. To make up for this, there was a great increase 
in colonial manufactures. Enterprising men began to 
make silk and other goods, which Great Britain had for- 
bidden to be manufactured in the colonies (§ Oy, note); 
and the different colonies encouraged them b)^ voting 
money to help them. During the Revolution, the colonists 
even began to make powder and other munitions of war. 

187. In Literature the productions of the colonists were 
as yet almost entirely political ; and in this field their 



1775] SLAVERY 117 

work Avas certainly admirable. Their addresses and 
petitions, their declarations of rights, and their declaration 
of independence (§ 206) cannot well be read without being- 
admired. Poetry, music, and the drama hardly existed ; 
but two fine painters, Copley and West, had appeared. 
New colleges were springing up : Rhode Island College 
(now Brown University) was founded at Providence in 
1764; Dartmouth College, at Hanover, N. H., in 1769; 
and Queen's College (now Rutgers College), at New 
Brunswick, N. J., in 1770. There were but 14 news- 
papers in all New England, 4 in New York, 9 in Penn- 
sylvania, 2 each in Maryland, Virginia, and North 
Carolina, 3 in South Carolina, and i in Georgia: 37 in 
all. 

188. Slavery had grown much faster in the South than 
in the North. In New England there were signs that it 
would not last much longer; and some of the courts 
began to declare it illegal, and to give the slaves their 
freedom. Vermont (§ 65) never permitted slavery. The 
first Continental Congress recommended that the slave- 
trade should be stopped, and all the colonies agreed ; but 
this was not because the Congress wanted to put an end 
to slavery, but because the American slave-trade was 
particularly profitable to British merchants. For a time 
— perhaps all through the Revolution — no slaves were 
brought into the country. As soon as the Revolution 
was ended, commerce revived, and the slave-trade with 
it; but by this time it was confined to the Southern States, 
for the Northern States had forbidden it for themselves. 1 

189. The Leading Events of this twelve years' struggle 
against England were as follows: 

1 In 1715, there were 13,000 negro slaves north of Mason and Dixon's 
Hne (§87), and 47,000 south: 60,000 in all. In 1775, there were 50,000 
north, and 450,000 south : 500,000 in all. 



Ii8 COLONUL RESIST/INCE [1763 

1 763-6 : hiternal Taxation §163 

1764: Parliament claims the right to tax the 

colonies 163 

1765 ; The Stamp Act passed 

Stamp-Act Congress 

1766 : The Stamp Act repealed 

1767-73 : Commercial Taxation 

1767: Parliament lays taxes on commerce. . . 
The Americans give up trade in the 

articles taxed 

1768 : Boston occupied by British troops. . . . 

1770: The Boston massacre 

The taxes removed, except that on tea. 

1772 : Burning of the Gaspcc 

1773 : Tea sent to America 

The colonies refuse to receive it 

Boston Tea Party 

1 774-5 : Legislation 

1774: Boston Port Act; Massachusetts Act; 
Transportation Act ; and Quebec 

Act passed 

First Continental Congress 

The Association 

1775: War 

1775: Lexington and Concord fights 

Siege of Boston 



64 
66 
67 
68 
69 

70 
71 
71 
7Z 
71 
74 
74 
74 
75 



75 
77 
77 
81 
81 
83 



Topics for Further Study. 



1. English politics, 1763-1775. 

2. Why did not all the English colonies in America oppose 
Parliament and the king .? 

3. Committees of correspondence. 

4. Parliamentary interference, prior to 1763, with trade and 
manufactures in the colonies. 

5. New England and the slave-trade. 

6. The organization of resistance in a particular colony 
{e.g., New Hampshire). 

Supplementary Reading. 

Sources. — MacDonald's Select Charters gives a form of a 
writ of assistance (No. 53), and the texts of the Stamp Act 
(No. 57), Quartering Acts (Nos. 58 and 71), the resolutions 



1775J SUPPLEMENTARY READING 119 

of the Stamp Act Congress (No. 59), the Declaratory Act of 
1766 (No. 60), the Townshend Acts (Nos. 61-64), the i\Iassa- 
chusetts circular letter (No. 65), the Virginia resolutions of 
1769 and 1773 (Nos. 66 and 67), the acts of 1774 (Nos. 
68-70), and the " Declaration and Resolves" and "Associa- 
tion" of the first Continental Congress (Nos. 72 and 73). 
Numerous miscellaneous documents are collected in Niles's 
Prmciples and Acts of the Revohi/ion. The collected writings 
of American statesmen, especially Washington, Franklin, John 
Adams, and Jefferson, are of the highest importance. 

Narrative Accounts. — Most of the works on the Revolution 
enumerated under Chapter IX. deal also with the period 
covered by this chapter. The following are of especial im- 
portance here: Frothingham"s Rise 0/ the Republic; Weeden's 
Eco7iomic and Social History of New England; Barry's Massa- 
chusetts; Hutchinson's Massachusetts ; Lecky's England in the 
Eighteenth Cefituty; lives of John Adams by C. F. Adams and 
Morse; Wells's Samuel Adams; Tudor's Otis; Quincy's ytu/a/i 
Quincy; Morse's Eranklin; lives of Patrick Henry by W. W. 
Henry and M. C. Tyler, of Jefferson by Randall and Morse, 
and of Washington by Marshall, Irving, Sparks, and Lodge. 

Illustrative Literature. — See under Chapter IX., post. 



CHAPTER IX 

THE REVOLUTION 

1775-1781 

190. Rise of the Republic — The history of the United 
States, as a separate country, begins with the fight at 
Lexington, though the name of the United Colonies was 
kept up until July 4, 1776 (§ 205). During this period of 
more than a year, the colonists still claimed to be loyal 
subjects of the king, fighting only against the attempts of 
Parliament to govern them by its own will. But, as the 
king refused to govern the colonies with the aid of their 
Congress, the Congress did all the governing itself, and 
the colonies became at once, in reality, a separate 
country. 

191. The Second Continental Congress met at Philadel- 
phia, May 10, 1775. The business of the First Congress 
(in 1774) had been only to pass resolutions: the Second 
Congress had to make laws. Men like to feel that they 
are acting under some lawful authority, and all such 
authority in the colonies had almost disappeared. Most 
of the royal governors had withdrawn as soon as open 
fighting began, and no new governments had been 
formed. Congress became, by common consent, the 
general governing body of the country. It adopted the 
forces around Boston as a continental army, appointed 
Washington to command it, and raised money to support 
the war. Toward the end of the year, it began to form 

120 



1775] THE SECOND CONTINENTAL CONGRESS 



121 



a navy (§ 240). At first, therefore, the war was between 
the British Parhament and the American Congress, both 
acknowledging the same king. When it was found that 
the king sided altogether with the Parliament, Congress 




Carpenter's Hall, where the First Continental Congress mrt. 

made war on the king also, and, in 1776, declared the 
colonies independent of him as well as of Parliament 
(§ 205). 

192. Membership of the Congress. — The Second Con- 
tinental Congress Avas a body of distinguished and able 
men. Each colony had chosen some of its strongest men 
as delegates. Among the delegates from Massachusetts 
Avere John Adams, one of the best qualified men in the 
country for public service, and afterward President of the 
United States; Samuel Adams, a trusted popular leader 
and an earnest advocate of independence ; and John Han- 
cock, a Boston merchant, whose bold signature heads the 
list of signers of the Declaration of Independence. Con- 



12 2 THE REI^OLUTION [1775 

necticLit was represented by Roger Sherman and Oliver 
Ellsworth. New York sent John Jay, afterward chief 
justice of the Supreme Court. Pennsylvania sent Robert 
Morris, whose skilful management later earned him the 
title of the "financier of the Revolution," and Benjamin 
Franklin. From Virginia came Patrick Henry, already 
known as an orator and enthusiastic opponent of Great 
Britain; Thomas Jefferson, who was later to write the 
Declaration of Independence ; and George Washington. 

193.* Leading Men. — The leading men in the Congress 
were Franklin, Washington, and Jefferson. Franklin was 
born in Boston, but went to Philadelphia early in life, and 
soon built up a successful business as a printer. He was 
self-taught, but became widely known through his writings 
and scientific investigations. His "Poor Richard's 
Almanac," published annually, and filled with proverbs 
embodying sound practical advice in pithy phrases, made 
his name a household word in America. He was now a 
man of independent means, had been long in public life, 
and had represented the colonies in P^ngland at the time 
of the Stamp Act ; and his experience and judgment made 
him invaluable to the American cause. He was, more- 
over, a consummate diplomatist, and much of the success 
of the Revolution was due to the skill with which Franklin 
represented the country abroad. Washington was not 
yet so widely known as Franklin. He was now somewhat 
over forty years of age, and was soon to show, on a 
larger scale, the military ability which he had first ex- 
hibited in the resistance to the French twenty years 
before. Washington was not a ready speaker, but he 
knew how to choose the best men for important positions, 
to bear patiently with their imperfections, and to follow 
the wisest course in the midst of conflicting and hostile 
advice. Above all, he was absolutely unselfish, refused 



1775] 



LEADING MEN 



123 



all suggestions of mercl)' personal gain, and cared only 
for the good of his country. Jefferson was a poor speaker, 
but an effective writer, and his influence increased rapidly 
as time went on. Men liked to have him write out what 



l,.i. i| P'l'i V' -'■ 



ii!ili!!iBi!isii!iiiiM^ 




Benjamin Franklin. 



they had decided upon, but they had not yet come to set 
so much store by his judgment on public questions. 
Jefferson was an advocate of what were then regarded as 
extreme democratic opinions, under which the goodness 



124 



THE REyOLUTlON 



[1775 




of laws was tested largely by the liberty they left to the 
individual; but he was not to have an opportunity to 
apply those ideas on a large scale until he became Presi- 
dent, in 1 80 1. 

(i) At Boston. 

194. British Reinforcements, under three generals, 
Howe, Clinton, and Burgoyne, arrived at Boston soon 
after the fight at Lex- 
ington. Gage had 
now about 10,000 
men. These held the 
town of Boston, which 
lay on a peninsula occupying the 
middle of the harbor. Around 
them, on the hills of the mainland, 
there were about twice their num- 
ber of undisciplined and poorly 
armed Americans, without cannon and almost without 
food. Just north of Boston, another peninsula ran out into 
the harbor. On it there were several hills overlooking 
the city, and the Americans determined to seize and 
fortify one of them, called Bunker Hill. About a thousand 
men, under Colonel Prescott, were sent into the peninsula 
for this on a suitable night. For some reason, they 
passed beyond Bunker Hill and seized Breed's Hill, much 
closer to Boston.^ 

195. The American Fortification was continued silently 
and swiftly through the night. In the morning of June 
17. 177 5' ^^^^ British in Boston woke to see a long line of 
intrenchments running across the hill above them, and an 
American working-party busily strengthening it. For a 



Dgrfhesteu /j 



The Revolution in New 
England. 



' lirecd's Hill is now usually called IJunker Hill, and the Bunker Hill 
monument is creeled upon it. 



775] 



BUNKER HILL 



125 



time, the British frigates in the liarbor kept up a slow and 
distant fire, to which the working-part}' paid no attention ; 
but at noon the work was stopped, for the British troops 
were coming across the harbor in boats. Three thousand 
well armed, uniformed, and drilled soldiers, who had 
never kno\\n defeat in equal fight, landed near Charles- 
town, under General Howe. Here they formed at the 
waterside, and in a long, steady line began to move 
upward to scatter the 1,500 farmers who were watching 
them from the top of the hill. From the roofs of the 
houses in Boston the townspeople were watching, A\hile 
the rest of the British army were anxious to see " whether 
the Yankees would fight. ' ' Most of the watchers ex- 
pected to see the untrained soldiers in the fort fire a few 
hasty shots at a safe distance, and run. 

196. Battle of Bunker Hill — The fort held a threatening 
silence until the attacking column was within 150 feet. 
Then, at the word, came a 
sheet of fire from the marks- 
men within; and, when the 
smoke lifted, part of the 
British line was lying dead 
or wounded, and the rest 
were retreating down the 
hill. The British were not 
cowards : the officers re- 
formed the line at the bottom 
of the hill, and, after setting 
fire to Charlestown, again 
advanced to the attack. 
Again there was a steady 
silence in the fort, a close and deadly fire, and the British 
line was driven down the hill again. The British then 
moved up the hill for the third time. The powder in the 




SCALE OF MILES 



Battle of Bunker Hill. 




126 THE REVOLUTION [177^ 

fort was now gone, antl the garrison fought for a few 
minutes with gunstocks and stones against the British 
bayonets. But such a struggle was hopeless, and the 
British gained the fort. They were too tired to pursue 
the garrison, who escaped to the mainland.' 

197. Washington, early in July, took command of the 
Americans who had gathered around l^oston, and began 
the difficult task of forming them into 
a real army. Supplies of powder, arms, 
and other materials of war grew more 
abundant, as the American privateers 
(§ 240) captured supply-ships from Eng- 
land. But the men were not willing 
to remain in camp for a long time, and 
had been so accustomed to independence 
that they disliked strict military discipline. This difficulty 
lasted throughout the war, and sometimes drove Washing- 
ton almost to despair. In the spring of 1776, however, 
he had formed something like an army. The color of its 
uniform, when it could afford one, was blue and yellow 
(or buff), and these \\'erc the " rebel " colors throughout 
the Revolution. Usually, however, the soldiers wore 
hunting-shirts, dyed brown, as the best available substi- 
tute. The flag was unfurled for the first time on New- 
Year's Day, 1776, at Cambridge. It had the stripes as 
at present, and the double cross of the British flag instead 
of the stars. The stars were added in 1777."^ 

* The American loss was 449, out of 1,500 men in the Imttlc. Among the 
killed was General Joseph Warren, a Boston physician, one of tlie leading 
Whigs of Massachusetts. The Iiritish loss was 1,054, one third of their 
number. This tremendous kjss had its effect all through the war, for the 
British regulars would no longer fight except in the open field. On several 
occasions, American armies .were relieved from dangerous positions because 
the British did not like to attack intrenchments. 

* At first there had been flags of all kinds, the commonest having a rattle 
snake upon it, with the motto, " Uon't tread on me.'' (See p. 127.) 



1776] 



OPERATIONS IN CANADA 



127 




Rattlesnake Flag. 



198. British Evacuation of Boston. — Washington's new 
army was now ready to renew the attempt which had 
been made at Bunker 
Hill. This time a penin- 
sula on the south side 
of Boston, called Dor- 
chester Heights, was se- 
lected. It was silently 
seized by night, and 
before Howe, who had 
succeeded Gage, could 
attack it, the fortifica- 
tions had been made 
very strong. The Brit- 
ish commander therefore decided not to attack them, but 
to leave Boston. He embarked his men on the fleet, 
March 17, and set sail for Halifax. The American army 
then entered the town. From this time the British made 
hardly any serious effort to conquer New England ; and 
for a few months, until they attacked the Middle States, 
there were no longer any British forces within the United 
States (§ 207). 

(2) Operations in Canada. 

199. Canada, it was hope^l, would join the other 
colonies, and the first thought of the colonists was to 
drive the British troops out of that province. The easiest 
road into Canada was through northeastern New York, 
by way of Lake Champlain and Lake George. On this 
road the British held the strong fort of Ticonderoga ; but 
this was taken by surprise, three weeks after the fight at 
Lexington, by Ethan Allen and a small party of men 
from Vermont. The captured stores were sent to the 
army before Boston, where they were very welcome. 



128 



THE RESOLUTION 



[mis 




Philip Schuyler. 



200. The Invasion of Canada was now begun. During 
the summer of 1775, American troops, led by Schuyler 

^:-— 5-^.^ and Montgomery, two 

/ - New York officers, 

pushed into Canada. 
They captured Montreal 
in November. Here they 
were joined by fresh 
troops, under Benedict 
Arnold, who had forced 
their way through the 
Maine wilderness, up the 
Kennebec River, and 
across into Canada. The 
whole force now num- 
bered about 1,000 men, 
and these found Quebec 
too strong for them (§ 150). In an attack upon it, 
Montgomery was killed, and his troops were beaten 
back.^ Arnold held the army before Quebec until the 
spring of 1776, when the Americans were finally driven 
out of Canada, back to Ticonderoga. Canada remained 
a British province. 

(3) /// E>igland and on iJic Coast. 

201. The People in England had offered expressions of 
sympathy for the colonies. A number of officers in the 
army had resigned their commissions rather than serve in 
America. Petitions against the war had been presented 
to the king and Parliament from many towns. The city 
of London had declared its abhorrence of the measures 

^ Montgomery had been a distinguished British officer, but had mairied and 
settled in New York. His bones were brought to New York City in l8l8, 
and again buried with appropriate ceremonies. 



1775] PARLIAMENT AND THE COLONIES 129 

designed to oppress " our fellow subjects in the colonics," 
and had begged the king to change his government. 
But none of these representations had any influence upon 
those who had power in Great Britain ; and, as the war 
went en, English expressions of sympathy for the colonies 
became for a time less frequent. 

202. Parliament proposed, early in 1775, that, if any 
colony would promise to lay taxes sufficient to support a 
royal government, no Parliamentary taxes should be im- 
posed on that colony. Edmund Burke, in an elaborate 
and eloquent speech, pleaded the cause of the colonies, 
and urged a return to the old plan of relying upon the 
good will of the assemblies. But the proposition of 
Parliament, suggested by Lord North, was rejected, and 
Parliament was soon as angry as the king. It voted to 
send 25,000 men to America; to hire and send over 
17,000 soldiers from Hesse-Cassel, in Germany ;i to forbid 
all trade with the colonies ; and to declare American ships 
lawful prize, that is, to permit them to be captured by 
English or foreign ships. Congress answered by open- 
ing American harbors to ships of all nations, and declar- 
ing British ships lawful prize. All this time. Congress 
was declaring that it had no desire for independence; 
and the different colonies were directing their delegates 
not to vote for a separation. This state of things could 
not last long. The king's loyal subjects could not go 
on shooting the king's soldiers without soon learning to 
detest the king himself. 

203. Along the Coast, where the British frigates com- 
manded the ocean, the exposed towns were harshly 
treated. Any refusal by the people to supply the ships 

1 These hired soldiers, called Hessians, who could speak no English, were 
particularly hated by the colonists, and were accused of numberless cruelties 
during the war. 



130 THE RESOLUTION [1776 

with provisions was likely to be answered by a cannonade. 
In 1775, the towns of Gloucester, Bristol, and Falmouth 
(now Portland) were bombarded and destroyed ; and early 
in 1776, Norfolk met the same fate. Charleston was 
attacked, June 28, by a squadron of ten British ships, 
with 2,500 troops on board, under General Clinton. 
They were beaten off b)' the South Carolina troops under 
Moultrie, one of the ships being burned.^ The fleet then 
sailed for New York, and the Southern States for nearly 
three years felt little of the war 

(4) Indcpcmiciice. 

204. The Desire for Independence began to grow rapidly 
in the spring of 1776. The king was wholly on the side 
of the enemies of the colonists, had declared the colonists 
to be rebels, and had allowed his ships to burn their 
towns. The colonists were therefore beginning to forget 
that they were his loyal subjects. Just at this time, a 
pamphlet called Connnoii Soisc was published, written by 
Thomas Paine: it urged these considerations with great 
force and effect. The first strong sign of the change of 
feeling was a recommendation by Congress, in May, 
1776, that the different colonies should form governments 
of their own, in place of those which had been overthrown. 
This was done, and the colonies now took the name of 
States. 

205. Independence. — Virginia led the way in instructing 
her delegates in Congress to vote for independence, and 
the other States gradually followed. June 8, a resolution 
that the colonies were free and independent States was 
offered in Congress ; and a committee of five was ap- 

^ The name of Fort Sullivan was changed to Fort Moultrie in honor of the 
commander. One of the heroes of the defence was Sergeant Jasper, who 
climbed the parapet during the hottest of the fire, and restored the flagstaff, 
which had been shot away. 



7/6] 



THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 




Liberty Bell. 



pointed to draw up a fitting' declaration. The com- 
mittee fini.shcd its work- 
June 28. July 2, the reso- 
lution was adopted ; and 
the Declaration of Inde- 
pendence was adopted July 
4, 1776. The United 
Colonies were now the 
United States, claiming to 
be independent of both king 
and Parliament. 

206. The Declaration of 
Independence is in Appen- 
dix I. It was drawn up 
by Jefferson. The other 
members of the committee, 
John Adams, Franklin, 
Sherman, and Livingston, did little of the work ; but Adams 
did most of the speaking in its favor, as Jefferson was not 
a good public speaker. Parliament is not mentioned in 
the Declaration, except as a body of men whom the king 
had aided in ' ' acts of pretended legislation ' ' over the 
colonies. The new idea in the Declaration is that gov- 
ernments are to be made and changed by the people; 
elsewhere, up to that time, it was held that the people 
were bound to obey the government, as long as it pro- 
tected them. The success of the American Revolution 
aided to bring about the I'rench Revolution in 1789 and 
the following years. The same idea now controls every 
government whose people care to assert it. 

(5) In the Middle States : lyyd-yS. 

207. The Middle States were now, for nearl}' three 
years, to be the theatre of the war. P'or the time. Great 



132 



THE REVOLUTION 



[1776 



Britain had g-iveti up New England, because of its stormy 
coast in winter, and the stubborn temper of its people. 
The Southern States were not yet rich enough to be a 
great prize. The Middle States seemed to be a better 




Independence Hall in 1776. 

point of attack. Their people were of mixed races, not 
all of one blood as in New England. Many of them were 
tenants and cared little about taxes, while the owners of 
great tracts of land, like most rich and comfortably settled 
people, disliked sudden changes, and were apt to .sympa- 



1776] 



IN THF MIDDLE STATES 



^ZZ 



thize with the i^oxxM'iinicnt. 
Most of the Tories were in 
the Middle States, and the 
l^ritish could expect assistance 
from them. Above all, the 
British hoped, by means of 
their fleet, to control the 
harbor of New York and the 
Hudson River, thus opening 
up the road to Canada (§ 199), 
and at the same time, by 




serious part of the war began. 



forts and garrisons along 
the river, cutting off New 
England from the rest of 
the Union. Late in 
June, 1776, a British 
army from Halifax, under 
General Howe, landed 
on Staten Island, near 
New York City ; and the 
The fic[-htino: in New 



134 THE REVOLUTION [1776 

England at the beginnin*; of the Revokition, and in the 
South at the end of it, is interesting; but the decisive 
struggle was in the Middle States from 1776 until 1778. 

208. Washington had hurried to New York with his 
troops immediately after the evacuation of Boston (§ 198), 
and had begun to erect fortifications. He had succeeded 
in getting toge^'her about 20,000 men. But they were 
poorly armed, equipped, and drilled, and were to be 
beaten again and again by the British before they could 
be trained to win victories in their turn. The great dis- 
tinction of Washington, in the war, is the skill with which 
he avoided a battle with the whole British force, and the 
patient courage with which he submitted to being beaten 
until his army \\'as formed and trained. 

209. Battle of Long Island. — During the next two 
months of 1776, Howe's force was increased to about 
30,000 well-trained soldiers. With half of these he 
crossed to Long Island, where about 5,000 Americans 
were posted near Brooklyn, then only a ferry station. 
Howe nearly surrounded them, and completely defeated 
them in the battle of Long Island (August 27, 1776). 
Only 3,000 of the Americans escaped to Brooklyn, where 
a fort had been built. For two days the British hesitated 
about attacking the fort, and then a heavy fog enabled 
Washington to bring the garrison over to New York. 
Howe followed slowly to New . York. Washington 
retreated before him, skirmishing at Harlem and White 
Plains, thus reaching the hills east of the present town of 
Peekskill, where he halted and faced about. Again Howe 
refused to attack him, but moved back to enter New 
Jersey. On his way he captured Fort Washington, now 
in the upper part of New York City, where Washington 
had left 3,000 men.^ 

' It was during this iclicat that tlie IJritish captured and lianged a young 



1776] IVASHINGTON'S RETREAT 135 

210. Washington's Retreat — Washington left General 
Charles Lee to hold the position near Peekskill, and with 
5,000 men crossed the Hudson River, and moved down 
to a point nearly opposite New York City. Early in 
December, the British, under Lord Cornwallis, crossed 
the Hudson River. Washington retreated before them 
through New Brunswick, Princeton, and Trenton, across 
New Jersey, and finally put the Delaware River between 
him and his pursuers. The cold weather, the hasty 
retreat, and other discouragements decreased his forces 
so much that he had but 3,000 men ; and the British were 
confident that they would " catch him and end the war " 
as soon as the Delaware River should freeze over so that 
they could cross. ^ 

211. Congress abandoned Philadelphia and went to 
Baltimore. Before leaving, it gave Washington almost 
supreme power, authorizing him to seize property and 
arrest persons as he should judge best. There was terror 
everywhere through the Middle States, and many persons 
hastened to put themselves under British protection and 
become again loyal subjects of the king. But Washington 
had not lost courage, and he revived the courage of others 
by an unexpected blow. 

212. Trenton and Princeton. — On Christmas night of 
1776, Washington recrossed the Delaware River into New 
Jersey with 2,500 picked men, and before daylight, De- 
cember 26, he had surrounded Trenton. The garrison, 
1,000 Hessian soldiers, was surprised and captured with 
the loss of but four Americans. Washington took his 

American officer, Captain Nathan Hale. He was a spy, like Andre (§ 238), 
but was not treated as was Andre. He was not given time to write a letter, 
or prepare for death, and was shown no sympathy. 

1 Washington summoned Lee from Peekskill to his help, but Lee was 
treacherous, moved slowly, and allowed himself to be captured in New 
Jersey. 



136 



THE REVOLUTION 



[1776 



prisoners to Philadelphia and returned to Trenton, 
the news spread, the 
British forces in New 
Jersey started for 
Trenton, w here 
Washington was for 
the moment hemmed 
in between his ene- 
mies and the Dela- 



As 




ware River. Another quick movement saved him. 

During the night he broke camp, marched around the 
l^ritish forces to Princeton in their rear, and there, January 
3, 1777, defeated and scattered three British regiments. 
Cornwallis instantly turned and pursued him. But 
Washington was soon safe in the mountains of northern 
New Jersey, at Morristown, where the British did not 
venture to attack him. 

213. Winter Quarters. — The American army passed the 
winter of ly/G-j in a long line stretching from the 



7 76] 



THE IVINTER OF //Z''' 7 



137 



Hudson Ri\'cr to the Delaware, as the mountains run. 
The British hue at first faced that of Wasliington in a 
correspondinij Hne through the flat country below ; but 
the country people were so hostile that the whole British 
force gradually drew in around New l^runswick and near 
Sandy Hook. The winter thus passed without much ad- 
vantage to either side, except that the l^ritish had failed 
to capture Philadelphia. 

214. During the Winter, plundering expeditions were 
sent out by the British from New York to the towns in 




Marquis ue La Fayette. 



the neighborhood. In December, 1776, Newport, Rhode 
Island, was captured by the British, and was held for 



13^ THE REVO LUT ION [1777 

three years. In April, 1777, an expedition landed at 
Norwalk, Connecticut, marched inland, and burned the 
supplies at Danbury. A number of officers from the con- 
tinent of Europe crossed the ocean during the year to 
enter the American army. The most important of these 
was the Marquis de La Fayette, a youth of nineteen, who 
had secretly fitted out a ship and sailed for America 
against the orders of the French Government. Others 
were the Baron de Kalb, an experienced German officer; 
Kosciusko and Pulaski, two Polish patriots; and Conway, 
a troublesome Irish officer (§223). In 1778 came the 
Baron von Steuben, a veteran German officer, who first 
instructed the American troops in the tactics used in 
Europe. 

215. Howe tried in vain to draw the Americans out of 
their stronghold in northern New Jersey. He did not 
venture to attack Philadelphia by marching his army 
across New Jersey in front of the Americans, lest they 
should strike his army in flank on the march. In July, 
1777, he embarked 18,000 men on transports at Staten 
Island, and put out to sea, leaving a sufficient garrison to 
hold New York City. No one knew where he was going, 
and Washington was compelled to wait in New Jersey 
until he heard that the British vessels had been seen in 
Chesapeake Bay. He then hurried his army to Phila- 
delphia to defend that city. Howe sailed up Chesapeake 
Bay, and landed near Elkton. He avoided the Delaware 
River, because the Americans had filled it with obstruc- 
tions. 

216. Brandywine and Germantown. — Between Elkton 
and Philadelphia, the Brandywine River crosses the road. 
Here, at Chad's I'ord, Washington met Howe, and was 
defeated with a loss of 1,200 men. But the American 
army did better fighting than it had }'ct tl(Mie ; and, though 



17 77] BOURGOYNE'S EXPEDITION 139 

Mowe captured Philadelphia, Washington did not hesitate 
to attack him again at Germantown (now a part of Phila- 
delphia). The Americans were again repulsed after hard 
fighting. 

217. Winter Quarters. — The British troops in Philadel- 
phia enjoyed every comfort which a large city could give 
them. The Americans went into winter quarters at 
Valley P'orge, a little place on the Schuylkill River, just 
above Norristown. Here they passed a dreadful winter, 
half starved, poorly clothed, and many of them without 
shoes to protect their feet against the snow and ice. In 
spite of the horrors of the winter, Washington held his 
army at Valley Forge, because it was the best possible 
position from which to attack the enemy if they should 
move out of Philadelphia in any direction. In October, 
1777, after a long siege and hard fighting, the British 
drove the Americans out of Forts Mercer and Mifflin, 
opposite each other, on the banks of the Delaware, just 
below Philadelphia. Congress thereupon fled to Lancaster 
and then to York, again leaving Washington in almost 
supreme command. But things were not quite so dark 
as during the previous winter; for, while Washington had 
been fighting around Philadelphia, a whole British army 
had been captured at Saratoga in northeastern New York 
(§ 222). 

(6) Bitrgoync s Expedition, IJJ'J. 

218. The Hudson River was of great importance as a 
waterway (with Lake Champlain) to Canada, and as a 
dividing line between New England and the other States 
(§ 207). The British had found Washington's position on 
the Hudson, near Peekskill, so strong that they could not 
capture it from the south : they were now to try it from 



146 



THE RESOLUTION 



bin 



the north. Durin<j the summer of 1777, while Howe was 
g-etting- ready to sail for Philadelpliia, Gen. John Bur- 
goyne was moving from Canada to Lake Champlain A\'ith 
an army of about 10,000 men. Of these, 7,000 were 




Gen. John BuKGovNii. 

regular troops which he had brought from England, and 
the rest Canadians and Indians. In July, he reached 
Ticonderoga, which he captured without difficulty. 

219. Schuyler, the American general (Jj 200), had but 
4,000 men, and could only retreat through Skenesborough, 



777] 



FORT SCHUYLER AND lil-NNINGTON 



141 



did so slowly, destroying 



toward vYIbany. But he 

the bridg'cs behind hini, fell- 
ing" trees across the roads, 
and delaying the passage of 
the British as much as possi- 
ble. Finall}', he took up a 
position on some islands at 
the mouth of the Mohawk 
River, where it empties into 
the Hudson. Here both 

armies halted for a time. 
Schuyler was waiting for re- 
inforcements. B u r g o x' n e 
thought Schuyler's position 
too strong to be attacked, 
and was also searching for 
provisions, of which he was 
now in need. 

220. Fort Schuyler and 
Bennington. — Burgoyne had 
sent a detachment to the 
west, to capture Fort Schuyler 
(now the city of Rome) . The 
detachment routed a militia 
force at Oriskany ; but the 
garrison of Fort Schu}der held 
out stoutl}^ until Arnold, with 
an American detachment, 
arrived and drove the British 
back to Canada in great 
confusion. To the eastward 
was Vermont, whose people 
claimed to be a State separate Burgoyne's Expedition. 

from New Hampshire, though Congress as yet refused to 




SCALE OF MILES 



142 THE REVOLUTION [i7 77 

recognize them (§ 65). Parti)' in the hope of bringing the 
Verinonters to the British side, Burgoyne sent 800 men 
to Bennington, under Colonel Baum. They were met by 
Colonel John Stark and 400 militia, who entirely defeated 
them. Burgoyne had sent reinforcements, under Colonel 
Breyman, to support Baum; but, before they could reach 
the battle-field, the Americans also received reinforce- 
ments, under Colonel Seth Warner, and the second 
detachment was defeated as completely as the first had 
been.^ 

221. Burgoyne's Position was by this time very danger- 
ous. His Indian allies were leaving him ; many of his 
best men had been killed or captured , and he was getting 
short of provisions. The army opposed to him was in- 
creasing: Congress was hurrying men up the Hudson; 
and the country militia were coming in rapidly. Bur- 
goyne, therefore, desperately attempted to force his way 
through the American army. He crossed the Hudson, 
and moved slowly down its west bank toward the Mohawk. 
About the same time. Gates, who had been sent by 
Congress to take Schuyler's place, felt strong enough to 
move up the west bank of the Hudson, away from the 
Mohawk. 

222. Bemis Heights. — The two armies met at Bemis 
Heights, between Saratoga Lake and the Hudson. The 
battle which followed was not decisive : the British held 
the ground ; but the Americans had shown that Burgoyne 
could not break through. He was soon forced to make 
a last desperate attempt to do so ; but was defeated again 
in the battle of Stillwater and gave up hope of escaping 

* The British loss was al)out i^oo in Ixith battles; that of the Americans, 54. 
Stark's speech to his men, before the battle, is said to have been, " There 
they are, boys ; we must beat them to-day, or this night Molly Stark's a 
widow." 



1777] 



SURRRND/:R OF RURGOYNB 



143 



southward. lie now tried to retreat to Canada; but the 
triumphant Americans pressed on and surrounded his 
camp. At Saratoga, the pivotal point of the war (§ 
226), he surrendered his remaining army of 6,000 men. 







Horatio Gates. 



Chnton, in the mean time, was endeavoring to come to 
Burgoyne's rehef with troops from New York City. He 
captured some of the forts on the Hudson, but fell back 
on learning of Burgoyne's surrender. 

223. The Conway Cabal.— Most of the glory of these 
victories was due to the careful preparations of Schuyler, 
and the personal daring of Arnold ; but Gates took all the 
glory to himself During tlie winter, an effort was made 



144 THE RHyOLUTION [}n^ 

by him and a number of leading men in Congress and in 
the army to make him commander-in-chief, instead of 
Wasliington. It failed on account of the general indigna- 
tion when it became known. It is generally known as 
the " Conway cabal, " from the name of one of its leaders 
(§ 214) ; but there w^ere many others engaged in it, whose 
share has been more carefully covered ov'br. Almost all 
the meannesses of the Revolution centred in this ' ' time 
that tried men's souls." Some public men were afraid 
that the war would be a failure, and were anxious to make 
their peace with the British ; others were jealous of one 
another or of the army ; others were anxious only to make 
money. Their selfishness and cupidity made the task of 
Washington and the great men of the Revolution far more 
difficult, and the final success far more brilliant, than if all 
had been patriots. 

(7) Aid from Fi-ancc. 

224. France had been, waiting since 1763 for the time 
when Great Britain should be deprived of her territory 
in North America by the growing strength of her colo- 
nies. The French Government was therefore not at all 
sorry to see the English colonies rebel, and supplied 
them with arms and clothing from the beginning. But, 
in order to avoid war with Great Britain, the supplies 
were sent secretly, and the American agents were not 
publicly recognized.^ Openly, the French Government 
was on the side of Great Britain, and declared that, as it 
still had colonies outside of North America, it would not 
encourage them to rebel by helping the United States. 

225. The Appointment of Franklin as minister to France 
was a most fortunate selection. He was one of the 

^ Tlie first American agent in France was Silas Deane, appointed in 1776. 
Franklin, Deane, and Arthur Lee were made agents later in 1776. In 1778, 
Benjamin Franklin was made sole minister to France, 



I 778] ^/D FROM FRANCE T45 

slirewdest and most active diplomatists that ever serv'cd 
any country ; and yet he took care to seem only a plain 
and simple colonist. His plain dress, his modest manners, 
and his homel}' wit captivated the Frencli, and he became 
the favorite of Paris. He brought French public opinion 
over to the side of the colonies ; but for a long- time he 
could get no recognition from the government. When 
other French officers followed La Fayette to America, to 
enter the army of the United States, the French Govern- 
ment took care that the British ministers should know how 
angry it was, but it never succeeded in arresting the 
officers. 

226. The French Treaty. — The Declaration of Independ- 
ence had convinced the French Government that the 
Americans intended to separate from Great Britain for- 
ever ; but it required some further evidence that, if France 
should help, France would not have to do all the fighting. 
This doubt was removed by Burgoyne's surrender, and 
Franklin was made happy by a treaty of alliance between 
France and the United States, early in 1778. France was 
to send to the assistance of the United States a fleet of 16 
war-vessels, under D'Estaing, and an army of 4,000 men. 

227. Great Britain at once declared war against France.^ 
She offered the United States all that the colonies had 
asked three years before — freedom from taxation, and 
representation in Parliament. But the offer came too late. 
Independence had become the settled purpose of the 
Americans, and the war was to last nearly five years 
longer before Great Britain would consent to this. 

228. The Battle of Monmouth.— We left Howe in Phila- 
delphia, and Washington at Valley I'orge, near Norris- 

^ The ruling families of France and Spain were related, and Spain joined 
France in the war against Great Britain in 1779. Holland joined them in 
1780, for commercial reasons. 



146 THE REVOLUTION [1778 

town. Clinton succeeded Howe during the winter. When 
the news of the French alhance reached CHnton, he left 
Philadelphia and started across New Jersey, in order to 
unite all the British forces at New York City before the 
French fleet and army should arrive. Washington hurried 
after him, intending to keep him busy in New Jersey until 
the French should come. The van of the American army 
overtook the British rear at Monmouth Court-house (Free- 
hold), in June, 1778, and the battle lasted until nightfall 
without any decided result. The British drew off during 
the night, and embarked at Sandy Hook for New York 
City.i 

229. Washington moved farther toward the north, 
crossed the Hudson above New York City, and took his 
former position near Peekskill. From this point he could 
operate with effect if Clinton should make any movement 
toward New Englanci, toward Canada, or toward Phila- 
delphia. These positions in the Middle States were 
maintained for the rest of the war, the British occupying 
New York City, Staten Island, and a part of Long Island, 
and Washington's line running from Peekskill to Morris- 
town. The British had failed in the Middle States as they 
had done in New England, and were now about to attack 
the Southern States. 

(8) /// the North after i/yS. 

230. The French Fleet and Army arrived in July, 1778, 
soon after the British retreat from Philadelphia. The 

1 Clencral Charles Lee, who was afterwards discovered to have been a 
traitor, was disgraced at Monmouth. Instead of attacking, as he was ordered 
to do, he allowed his men to retreat. Washington spoke to him hastily and 
passionately as he sent the men hack into the fight, and Lee afterward wrote 
Washington several very disrespectful letters- For this and other acts of the 
kind he was dismissed from the service. At the beginning of the war, he 
had been considered one of the best of the American generals. 



1778] IN THF. NORTH AhTER 17 7 S 147 

larger vessels were unable to enter New York harbor, 
so that no attack was made on the city. The French 
therefore sailed for Newport, which was still in the hands 
of the British (§214). An American army, under Greene, 
Sullivan, and La Fayette, was sent to assist in the attack. 
But a storm blew the French fleet off the coast, and the 
attack was given up. The whole P'rench force then sailed 
to the West Indies, where France had possessions to 
defend.' 

231. The British now held but two cities in the United 
States, Newport and New York, with Staten Island and 
part of Long Island. These were all the results of their 
three years' w^ar against the colonies alone. Now they 
were struggling on every sea with their old enemy, 
France, and had still less attention to spare for America. 
As their chances of success grew less, their manner of 
fighting grew more savage. Plundering expeditions along 
the coast of New England and New Jersey burned the 
houses and alarmed the country, but made no attempt to 
hold any place. 

232. The Horrors of War. — Instances of the new manner 
of warfare were numerous. Wyoming, a Connecticut 
settlement in northern Pennsylvania, was captured in July, 
1778, by a force of British and Indians from western New 
York, commanded by a Tory, Colonel John Butler, and 
Brant, an Indian chief. The inhabitants were cruelly 
treated, and most of the men were killed. In November, 
the village of Cherry Valley, in New York, met a like 
fate. But the Indians were now to learn for the first time 



^ The French forces were never of any great assistance to the United States 
until the Yorktown campaign (§ 260). Whenever they were most needed, 
they were Hkely to be called off to the West Indies, to defend the French 
colonies there. But France helped the United States most liberally with 
money and supplies. 



148 THE RESOLUTION [i779 

that a new power had risen, and that it could strike, and 
strike hard. In the following }'ear, 1779, Congress sent 
an army, vuider General Sullivan, into western New York, 
to punish the Indians. Sullivan killed, burned, and 
destroyed until he had left the Indian country a desert. 
The British treatment of prisoners at New York was par- 
ticularly cruel. The prisoners were placed in worn-out 
war-vessels in the East River, near the Brooklyn shore, 
and were so scantily supplied with food, water, clothing, 
and medicine that they died in great numbers. The 
most notorious of these "hulks," or prison-ships, was the 

233. Paper Money was one of the severest discourage- 
ments under which the Americans labored. It had been 
issued by Congress to pay the expenses of the war, and 
had increased largely in amount. When a country has 
more paper money than it can use for business purposes, 
two or more dollars are made to do the work of one, and 
each "dollar" consequently decreases in value. The 
loss, of course, falls most severely on the poor. By 1778, 
Congress had issued so much paper money that eight 
paper dollars would buy only as much as one gold dollar. 
This made the difficulty worse, for Congress now had to 
issue eight times as much paper money as at first, and its 
value fell faster than ever. The British in New York 
counterfeited it skilfully, and passed off their counterfeits 
on the farmers. Before the war ended, the "continental 
money" was worthless: no one would take it, and a 
worthless thing was said to be " not worth a continental, ' ' 
meaning a continental dollar. 

234. Congress itself was not so much respected as at 
first, and the States did not submit to its authority as 
willingly as when they were all in terror of the British. 
No regular government for the whole people had yet been 



:7 79] 



FIN AN CM I. STRAITS 



149 



formed, and Congress could only go on begging the States 
for soldiers, issuing paper mone}', and running into debt 
in France and Holland, without the power to lay taxes 




Try 






OTj Bill entiffes 
Bearer to recel'us 
^Sixty Spanifh mill- 
ed Dollar Si or 
t/ie Value fliereo/ in 
Gold or Silvec, a.c- 
c or ding to a Refolu- 
Ition ta^eS, ^ <Son- 

^'U9e/it.26t^, 1778. 




Ckntinentai. MmNEV. 

(§ -39) oi* redeem the debt. The pay of the army was 
small, and toward the end of the war the men were not 
paid at all ; ^ so that it was difficult to obtain recruits, 
except wdien a British force entered a State and frightened 
men into the army. The people generally were begin- 
ning to rely on France, and even to think the war really 
over. Most of the burden of these difficulties fell on 
Washington, and taxed his patience to the utmost. 

235. The West. — Settlements had already been begun, 
in 1768-69, in Kentucky and Tennessee (§ 157, note), 
but they were not large, and were just beginning to feel 

^ After the war, the soldiers were partly paid by giving them western lands. 
Those who lived until the people and government grew richer were supported 
in their old age by pensions. 



15° THE RESOLUTION [i7 79 

secure against the Indians. North of the Ohio, there 
were only the remnants of the French settlements (§ 139), 
with a few British officers and soldiers. In 1778 and 
1779, George Rogers Clarke crossed the Ohio with a 
Kentucky force, captured Vincennes, and conquered the 
territory now in the States of Illinois and Indiana. Vir- 
ginia claimed it (§ 79), and made it the county of Illinois. 
But no American settlements were undertaken in it for a 
number of years. 

236. The British Government seems to have become 
convinced, when France entered the war, that in the end 
the independence of the United States must be acknowl- 
edged. But it wished to save some of its former territory. 
It had failed in New England and in the Middle States. 
It now determined to attack the Southern States, since 
they had fewer white inhabitants than the North, and the 
negro slaves would not count as soldiers. During the 
next five years, 1779-83, the fighting was mainly in the 
South, while the armies elsewhere did little more than 
watch one another. Three noteworthy events took place 
in the North, and these we will give at once. 

237. Stony Point : 1779. — A rocky hill, called Stony 
Point, ran out into the Hudson, nearly opposite Peekskill, 
and the British had taken possession of it and fortified it. 
Washington sent General Anthony Wayne, an officer of 
distinguished courage and skill, to recapture it. Just before 
midnight, July 15, 1779, Wayne silently formed his men in 
two columns on opposite sides of the foot of the hill, giving 
them orders not to fire, but to trust to the bayonet. The 
charge was completely successful ; the two columns met in 
the centre of the fort, and captured it and the garrison 
without firing a shot.* The fort was too near New York 

^ Wayne's daring gave him the popular name of " Mad Anthony " ; but he 
was really as prudent as he was brave (§ 308). 



yso] 



ARNOLD'S TREASON 



151 




Anthony Wayne. 



to be held, aiul the Americans, after dcstroyiiif^ the works, 

rcth'cd. The object of the 

movement was mainly to 

encourage the men, by 

showing them that they 

were now so well trained 

that they could trust to the 

bayonet as well as the 

British. 

238. Arnold's Treason: 
1780. — In September, 
1780, the country was 
shocked by the discovery 
that Benedict Arnold, one 
of its bravest generals, and 
commander of the impor- 
tant fortress of West Point, 
had planned to betray his post to the British in return for a 
large sum of money and a brigadier-general's commission 
in the British army. He had been reprimanded for mis- 
using the public money, and took this road to revenge. The 
British agent in making the bargain was Major John Andre, 
an amiable young officer, Clinton's aide-de-camp. On his 
return down the Hudson River from an interview with 
Arnold, he was made prisoner, near Tarry town, by three 
militiamen. He was allowed by an American officer to 
send warning to Arnold, who escaped to the British lines 
and received his reward, though the plot had failed. Andre 
was hanged as a spy, since he had been caught in disguise 
within the American lines. The fate of Andre was 
lamented'by the whole American army; but Washington 
felt that it was necessary as a warning to other British 
officers not to engage in such affairs. Efforts were made 
to capture Arnold, in order to hang him also, but they 



152 



THE REVOLUTION 



[178. 



failed. At the end of the war, he went to England, 
where he lived and died despised by Englishmen as well 
as by Americans. 

239. Revolt of the Troops: 1781 — In January, 1781, 
the misery of the unpaid and half-starved American soldiers 




John Andre. {Drawn by himself.) 



at Morristown became unbearable. The Pennsylvania 
troops revolted, and set out for Philadelphia to demand 
pay from Congress, which was in session there. On the 
march, British agents attempted to bring them over to 
Clinton's army, but were arrested by the soldiers. A 
committee of Congress met them at Princeton, and by fair 
promises induced them to disband peaceably. A few 
weeks later, the New Jersey troops also revolted, but 
Washington surrounded their camp and forced them to 
return to duty. At the end of the war, there were serious 
fears of a more extensive mutiny among the officers and 
soldiers at Newburgh, N. Y., because of failure to pay 
them; but it was stopped by Washington's influence. 



7 7-^] 



AMERICAN NAl^AI. SUCCFSSES 



is: 



(9) On the Sea. 

240. The American War- Vessels were mainly privateers, 
that is, \c.sscl.s owned b)' pri\atc persons, but commis- 
sioned by Congress, or b}' one of the States, to capture 
British vessels. Late in 1775, Congress ordered fourteen 




John Paul Jones. 

vessels to be built as a regular navy (§ 191). Most of 
these were of small size, but together with the privateers 
they captured a great number of merchant- vessels and 
small war-vessels, and seriously injured the commerce of 
Great Britain. Two vessels, the Reprisal and the 
Revenge, cruised around the British Isles in 1777, and 
almost put a stop to commerce for the time. In 1778, 



154 



THE REyOLUTION 



[1779 



Captain John Paul Jones, in the Ranger, repeated the 
exploit, and even landed to attack various places on the 
coast of England and Scotland. The number of vessels 
captured from the British is not exactly known, but has 
been estimated at about 700. 

241. The American Navy was not successfully formed, 
owing to the poverty of Congress and the number of 
British vessels on the coast. A number of vessels were 
built, but they were captured by heavier British vessels, 
or burned in the Delaware and Hudson rivers to prevent 
their falling into the hands of the enemy. The alliance 
with France, in 1778, gave Franklin an opportunity to 
purchase vessels which became American cruisers. 

242. The Richard and the Serapis. — In 1779, Franklin 
fitted out a fleet of five vessels, under command of Paul 

Jones. Only one of them, an 



SCALE OF WILES. 



y O R T 11 







old and rotten merchant- 
vessel, was of respectable 
size, and Jones named it 
the Bonliovnnc RicJiard. ^ 
The crew were disorderly 
and disobedient, and Jones 
had the greatest difficulty 
in controlling them. The 
captains of the other vessels 
were fully as troublesome. 
For a month, however, the 
fleet kept the eastern coast 
of Scotland and England in 
alarm, and made many prizes. September 23, 1779, it 



The British Isles. 



^ Jones was a native of Scotland, He afterward entered the Russian navy, 
but died in poverty and neglect. The name of his ship (" Goodman 
Richard") was given in compliment to Franklin, who, while a Pennsylvania 
printer, had for many years published " Poor Richard's Almanac.'' 



1781] M THE SOUTH 155 

fell in with twci Britisli frii^atcs, the Scrapis, of forty i^uns, 
and the Countess of ScarborougJi, of twenty-two guns, off 
Flamborough Head, and one of the most desperate sea- 
fights in history follow^ed. The RicJiard 2i\\A the Serapis 
were of equal force, and Jones succeeded in tying them 
together. After two hours of frightful slaughter, in which 
both vessels were on fire several times, the Scj^apis sur- 
rendered. The Richard was so badly injured that she 
sank next morning. The Cojintcss of Scarborongh was 
captured by the rest of the fleet, and this was the only 
assistance given to the Richard. 

243. The French Fleets on the American coast did little 
except to protect the French islands in the West Indies, 
until De Grasse, in 1781, gave great assistance in captur- 
ing Cornwallis (§ 258). During the last three years of 
the war there were but two American frigates in active 
service, and both were of small size. One large vessel, 
the America, of seventy-four guns, was built, but Congress 
presented it to the king of France. The New England 
States did not cease to send out privateers. In 1779, a 
fleet of nineteen armed vessels and twenty-four transports, 
from Boston, attacked Castine, then held by the British. 
During the attack, a British fleet arrived and captured all 
the vessels. The men escaped by land. 

(10) In the South: iyj8-8i. 

244. Savannah was attacked by a British expedition 
from New York, late in 1778, and was easily captured. 
British troops from Florida then joined the expedition. 
Augusta was taken, and the whole State of Georgia soon 
fell under British control. General Benjamin Lincoln, 
the American commander, could do little except keep the 
British out of South Carolina, and prevent the South 



156 



THE RESOLUTION 



[1779 



Carolina Tories from escaping to Georgia. In September, 

J 779, he crossed into Georgia, and, with the help of the 

French Hcct under D'Estaing 

(§ 226), attacked Savannah. 

He was repulsed with heavy 

loss, and D'Estaing sailed 

away to the West Indies. 

Among the dead was 

(§ 214). Th 

then re-establish 

king's author 

t h r o u g h o 

Geor<iia 




very little resistance, and Lincoln retired to South Caro- 



245. Minor Movements — In r\'bruary, 1779, ^ body of 
700 Tories from North Carolina, while marching to 
Georgia, were defeated and scattered in South Carolina 
by the militia under Colonel Pickens. The next month, 



17 79] GEORGIA AND THE CAROUNAS 157 

a force of 2,000 Americans crossed into Georgia and was 
defeated at Briar Creek. In April, the British in their 
turn made a movement toward Charleston, but found 
Lincoln ready for battle, and withdrew to Georgia. 
Operations in the South then ceased for the summer of 
1779. Elsewhere, the British sent plundering expeditions 
from New York into Connecticut and Virginia, in order 
to prevent the sending of American reinforcements to the 
South. In this way the towns of New Haven and Nor- 
walk, in Connecticut, and Portsmouth and Norfolk, in 
Virginia, were plundered. 

246. Georgia was the first State which the British had 
completely conquered, and they treated the Whigs (§ 170) 
with severit}'. The Tories in the State were allowed to 
injure their Whig neighbors almost as they pleased. 
In the neighboring States of South Carolina and North 
Carolina, the Whigs were quick to inflict similar harshness 
on their Tory neighbors. Thus the war in the South 
immediately became more ferocious on both sides than it 
had ever been in the North. As each arm)- gained new 
territory, its enemies among the inhabitants were treated 
as traitors. In consequence, nearly all the people were 
forced to take part in the war, either against the regular 
armies or against their neighbors. For the next t\\o 
years there was no peace, no work, and no good feeling 
in the South; while the hanging or shooting of men by 
their neighbors, and even of brother b\' brother, made the 
results of the war more horrible than open battle. 

247. Charleston. — In October, 1779, Clinton ordered 
Newport to be evacuated, and collected all his available 
forces at New York. Then, leaving only enough troops 
in New York to defend it against Washington, late in 
December he sailed with the rest to Charleston. Here 
the British from Georgia met him ; the fleet forced its 



158 THE RESOLUTION [1780 

way through the harbor to the city; and in May, after a 
vigorous defence, Lincoln was compelled to surrender 
Charleston, together with his army of 6,000 men. Clinton 
refused to allow the garrison to surrender unless it would 
go through a public ceremony of laying down its arms 
(§ 261). He then sent out expeditions to various parts 
of the State, under his best cavalry officer, Tarleton, and 
scattered every American force that made its appearance. 
Tarleton was for a long time very successful. During 
the siege of Charleston he surprised a body of Americans 
at Monk's Corner, thirty miles from Charleston, and 
routed them. Soon after, he scattered another American 
force at the Wa.xhaws, near the North Carolina line. 

248. South Carolina was now under British control. 
Clinton considered his work done, and sailed back to 
New York with part of his troops, leaving Cornwallis in 
command of the rest. But the State was never entirely 
quiet, even when the British seemed to control it. 
Sumter, Marion, and other South Carolina leaders found 
places of refuge in the great swamps in different parts of 
the State ; and from these they kept up an active warfare 
with the British. Their desperate battles, night-marches, 
surprises, and hair-breadth escapes make this one of the 
most exciting and interesting periods of the Revolution. 

249. Camden. — Congress sent Gates, the victor of 
Saratoga, to take command of the forces in the South. 
He passed across North Carolina with nearly three times 
as many men as the British, and met them at Camden in 
August, 1780. Most of Gates's men were untrained 
militia, who at the first fire from the British fled without 
firing a shot in return. The few Continental troops from 
Maryland fought obstinately, but finally retreated, losing 
their commander, De Kalb (§ 214). Gates fled ahead of 
his army to Hillsboro (near the present city of Raleigh), 



78i] 



KING'S MOUNTAIN AND THE COJ^TENS 



159 



and South Carolina was left still more completely at the 
mercy of the British. Gates had been so unsuccessful that 
Congress removed him, and 
sent one of the most cautious 
and successful of the Ameri- 
can generals, Nathaniel 
Greene, of Rhode Island, 
to take his place. 

250. King's Mountain. — 
After the battle of Camden, 
Cornwallis sent Colonel 
Ferguson, with 1,100 men, 
to arouse the Tories in North 
Carolina. He was not suc- 
cessful, and soon found it ad- 
visable to fortify himself on 
King's Mountain, between 
the Broad and Catawba 
rivers. Here, in October, 
1780, he was attacked and 
utterly defeated b}' a force of 
about a thousand riflemen 
hastily gathered from western North Carolina and eastern 
Tennessee. About the same time, Tarleton surprised 
Sumter at Fishing Creek, and scattered his men for a 
time. 

251. The Cowpens. — Greene sent Morgan, a Virginia 
officer, into South Carolina with a thousand riflemen to 
gather recruits. Tarleton was sent after him with about 
an equal force, and attacked him in January, 1781, at the 
Cowpens, a pasture-field near Spartanburgh. F'or the 
first time, Tarleton was completely beaten, losing nearly 
all his men. Cornwallis immediately moved with all 
his force after Morgan, who had begun to retreat with 




Nathaniel Greene. 



i6o THE REVOLUTION [1781 

his prisoners. Morgan and Greene together were too 
weak to meet CornwalHs, and they managed a skilful and 
fortunate retreat across North Carolina into Virginia. As 
they crossed the Catawba, the Yadkin, and the Dan 
rivers, Cornwallis was just behind them ; but in each case 
a sudden rise of the river prevented him from crossing in 
time to overtake them. At the Dan, Cornwallis gave up 
the chase, and turned back to Hillsboro. 

252. Arnold in Virgina. — Benedict Arnold (§ 238) was 
now a general in the British service. In January, 1781, 
he was sent from New York, with 1,600 men, to ravage 
Virginia and prevent reinforcements from being sent to 
Greene. The Americans were naturally very anxious to 
capture him. La Fayette was sent by Washington to 
oppose him by land, while a few French vessels were 
to cut off his retreat by sea. A British fleet drove the 
French vessels back to Newport. Reinforcements under 
General Phillips were sent to Arnold, who plundered 
Virginia without mercy, while La Fayette could do little 
more than watch him. 

253. Guilford Court-house. — Greene soon obtained re- 
cruits enough to enable him to turn back into North 
Carolina, and the two armies met at Guilford Court-house 
(now Greensboro), in March, 1 781 . A part of the Ameri- 
can militia again gave way at the first fire, but the rest of 
Greene's army held its ground stubbornly, and at last 
retreated in excellent order. The British loss was so 
heavy that Cornwallis did not venture to pursue, but 
retired to Wilmington to obtain supplies from his ships. 
There were no further battles between these two armies, 
for during the next two months they passed one another, 
Greene moving south into South Carolina, and Cornwallis 
moving north into Virginia. 

254. South Carolina, — As soon as Cornwallis retired to 



1781] SOUTH CAROLINA AND VIRGINIA 161 

Wilmington, Greene moved across North Carolina into 
South Carolina, where the British were under command 
of Lord Rawdon. Battles followed, in April and May, 
1 78 1, the principal one beini;' foui^iit at Hobkirk's Hill 
(near Camden). Greene was again forced to retreat, but 
inflicted heavy loss upon his enemy. He spent the 
summer at the hills of the Santee, near Camden. In 
September he again moved down toward the coast, and 
fought the last battle of the Avar in this State, at Eutaw 
Springs, near Charleston. Again the British had the 
advantage, but their loss was so heavy that they retreated 
during the night, and took refuge in Charleston. Greene 
had finished his work. By sheer caution, activity, and 
perseverance, and without winning a single victory, he 
had almost cleared the South of the enemy. He now held 
every part of South Carolina and Georgia, excepting 
Charleston and Savannah, to which cities he kept the 
British closely confined for the rest of the war. 

255. Virginia. — Cornw^allis at Wilmington knew noth- 
ing of Greene's movement until it was too late to intercept 
him. Then, thinking that Rawdon was strong enough to 
defeat Greene, he decided to move north into Virginia, 
join the British troops already there, and endeavor to 
conquer that State. He met no great opposition on his 
march, and Tarleton's cavalry plundered the country at 
will. On reaching Virginia, Cornwallis found that he had 
about 8,000 men, twice as many as the force under 
La Fayette which was opposed to him. Orders were 
sent from New York by Clinton to seize and fortify some 
strong place on the coast which could be reached easily 
by the British vessels. Yorktown, on the peninsula 
between the James and York rivers, appeared to Corn- 
wallis to be the best location ; and here he fixed the 
headquarters of his army. 



i62 THE REVOLUTION [1781 

(11) Ycwktozvn: ijSi. 

256. Washington had not yet himself won a victory, 
unless we are to consider the smaller battles of Trenton, 
Princeton, and Monmouth as such. He had surmounted 
the very greatest difficulties; he had gone into battle 
knowing that defeat was almost certain, and yet he had 
made each defeat a training-school for his men ; he had 
shown the best qualities of a general in camp and battle- 
field ; he had been worth more than an army in keeping 
resistance alive; and he had well earned the universal and 
unfailing confidence of the people. But it certainly 
seemed fitting that he should also have the crowning 
glory of a great victory to close the war. 

257. Rochambeau, with a French army of 6,000 men, 
had landed at Newport in the summer of 1780. They 
were afterward marched to Washington's camp near 
Peekskill and Morristown. With these soldiers to help 
him, Washington, early in 1781, began active operations 
around New York, and kept Clinton in a state of constant 
alarm. In August his plan was changed by the arrival 
of a French frigate with the news that a strong French 
fleet and army would soon arrive in Chesapeake Bay, and 
cut off Cornwallis from all assistance. Washington at 
once decided to leave New York, march rapidly south- 
ward, and capture Yorktown and Cornwallis before the 
British fleets could reach the Chesapeake and drive the 
French fleet away.' The change of plan was kept a 
profound secret. Clinton was kept in daily expectation 
of an attack on New York, and did not discover the truth 

1 The French fleet was sent from the West Indies to Chesapeake Bay, to 
remain about four months. It was stronger than any single British fleet then 
on the coast of the United States, and the British admirals did not work 
together well enough to unite their fleets and beat it off. 



lySi] 



YORKTOIVN 



^(>?> 



for several days after \Vas]iinc,'^ton and Rocliambeau liad 
started for Virginia. 

258. The March to Yorktown. — The P^rench fleet, under 
De Grasse, arrived in Chesapeake Bay August 30. It 
not only blocked Corn- 
wallis's escape b)' sea, but 
landed soldiers enough to 
enable La Fa\-ette to pre- 
vent his escape by land. 
On the same da>', Wash- 
in<rton and Rochambeau, 
who had been moving 
slowly down the west bank 
of the Hudson Ri\'er, as if 
to attack Staten Island, 
suddenly struck off through 
New Jersey to Philadelphia, 
and thence to Elkton. Here 
they took shipping and 
sailed down Chesapeake 
Bay to the James River, 
where they joined La Fay- 











SCALE OF MILES 



The YdRKTowN Campaign. 



ette's army before York- 
town. While the march 
was taking place, a British 
fleet had tried to relieve Cornwallis, but had been beaten 
off by the French fleet. 

259. New London. — The march southward was as much 
of a surprise to the American and I'^rench soldiers as to 
Clinton. When Clinton discovered its purpose, he tried 
to draw off a part of the American troops by sending the 
traitor Arnold to attack New London, Conn. Fort 
Griswold, which defended the town, was captured Sep- 
tember 6, and its commander and most of the garrison 



164 



THE RESOLUTION 



[1781 




Were killed after they 
had surrendered. This 
useless butchery had no 
effect on Washington's 
march to Yorktown. 

260. The Siege of 
Yorktown — The allied 
armies of France and 
the United States formed a half-circle 
in front of Yorktown, and the sieg-e 
began September 30, 178 1. The 
French troops were brilliant with new 
and bright uniforms, while the dress of 
the Americans was faded and ragged. 
But there was no such difference in 
the fighting power of the two armies, and there was 
a constant rivalry between them for the lead in the 



1783] PEACE 165 

attacks. After three weeks of siege and hard fighting, 
Cornwalhs found that it was impossible to resist longer. 
He made one attempt to take his army across the York 
Ri\er and hurr)' northward before the allies could follow 
him ; but a sudden storm scattered his boats and defeated 
his plan. He then decided to surrender. 

261. The Surrender took place October 19, 1781, in a 
large field near Yorktown.^ The British troops, 8,000 in 
number, went through the same public ceremony of sur- 
render which had been imposed on the Americans at 
Charleston ; and Lincoln, who had commanded at Charles- 
ton, was appointed to receive Cornwallis's sword (§ 247). 
Cornwallis, however, was worn out by long work and 
fighting, and sent a subordinate to make the surrender. 
It had hardly taken place, when an expedition sailed from 
New York, with 7,000 men, to relieve Cornwallis, but it 
returned on finding that the surrender had taken place. 
The allied forces then separated. De Grasse sailed for 
the West Indies. The French troops remained in Vir- 
ginia. The Americans marched back to New York, 
except a detachment \\'hich went southward and recap- 
tured Wilmington. 

(12) Peace: lySj. 

262. Peace. — The terms of peace were not at once 
arranged. But it was difficult and expensive for the 
British Government to obtain men to serve in America, 
and the loss of Cornwallis's army could not be made up. 
When the news reached London the ministry resigned, 
and Parliament demanded peace so decidedly that the 
king gave way. l^oth parties agreed to cease hostilities 
and appoint commissioners to agree on terms. The 

^ For the centennial celebration of the surrender, see § 820. 



i66 THE REyOLUTlON [1783 

British still held New York, Charleston, and Savannah, 
and the Americans were encamped near those places ; but 
there were no more battles. 

263. The Final Treaty of peace was made in 1783. 
Great Britain acknowledged the United States to be free 
and independent, with Canada as a boundary on the 
north, the Mississippi River on the west, and Florida, 
extending west to the Mississippi, on the south. Spain 
owned the territory west of the Mississippi, called Louisi- 
ana (§ 155); and Great Britain now transferred to her 
Florida also. The United States thus had Great Britain 
as a neighbor on the north, and Spain on the south and 
west. The treaty also secured the right of Americans to 
fish on the Newfoundland Banks. 

264. The American Army was now disbanded, having 
been paid principally in promises. Officers and men 
retired to their homes very much dissatisfied with their 
unjust treatment by Congress and the country. Washing- 
ton then appeared before Congress at Annapolis and 
resigned his commission. The British evacuated Savan- 
nah in July, 1782, Charleston in the following December, 
and New York Cit\% their last post on the coast, Novem- 
ber 25, 1783. But they refused to evacuate the forts 
north of the Ohio River, and held them for some twelve 
years longer (§ 309). 

265. The Expenses of the war cannot be exactly stated. 
Those of the United States have been estimated at 
$135,000,000 in specie. The debt of Great Britain was in- 
creased during the war about $610,600,000. The British 
forces in the whole of North America probably never at 
any one time exceeded 40,000 men; and the American 
regular troops were about the same number. Most of 
the larger American armies were made up of minute-men 
or militia, who remained in the service but a short time. 




THE UmTED STATES 

AT THE 

PEACE OF 1783 

SCALE OF MILES 



irom 3 WasbiDgton 




1777] LEADING EVENTS IN THE l^'AR. 167 

266. The Tories. — During; the war, most of the States 
had passed laws to confiscate the estates of persons who 
had taken the British side. Therefore, at the end of the 
war, many of the Tories retired from the United States 
with the British troops ; those from the North going to 
Canada and Nova Scotia, and those from the South to the 
West Indies. Some of them returned, years afterward, 
without hindrance, after the angry feeHngs excited by the 
war had died awa)^ 

267. The Leading Events in the war of the American 
Revolution were as follows: 

1775-6 : Principally in A^eiv England and Ccmada § ^94 

1775 : Lexington; American success (April 19) 181 
Ticonderoga; American success (May 

10) 199 

Bunker Hill; British success (June 17) 196 
Quebec; British success (December 31) 200 
1776: Evacuation of Boston; American suc- 
cess (IMarch 17) 198 

Fort Moultrie, S. C. ; American suc- 
cess (June 28) 203 

Dfxlaration of lNDEPf:xuKXCE, July 4 205 

I 776-8 : Principally in the Middle Slates 209 

1776: Long Island; British success (August 

27) 209 

Evacuation of New York; British suc- 
cess (September 16) 209 

Washington's New Jersey retreat ; Brit- 
ish success 2 1 o 

Trenton; American success (Decem- 
ber 26) 212 

1777: Princeton ; American success (Jan- 
uary 3) 212 

British army transferred to Chesapeake 

Bay 215 

Brandywine; British success (Septem- 
ber 11) 216 

Germantown; British success (October 

4) 216 



i68 THE REyOLUTlON [178 



1777: Burgoyne's invasion §218 

Bennington; American success (Au- 
gust 16) 220 

Bemis Heights; drawn battle (Septem- 
ber 19) 222 

Stillwater; American success (Octo- 
ber 7) 222 

Burgoyne's surrender; American suc- 
cess (October 17) 222 

American winter quarters at Valley 

Forge 217 

1778: Treaty with France (February 6) 226 

British retreat from Philadelphia; 

American success (June 18) 228 

Monmouth; drawn battle (June 28).. 228 
Wyoming; massacre by the British 

(July 4) 232 

1778-81 : Principally in the Southern States 244 

1778: Capture of Savannah; British success 

(December 29) 244 

1779: Conquest of Georgia; British success.. 246 
Attack on Savannah; British success 

(September) 244 

Stcmy Point, N. Y. ; American success 

(July 15) 237 

1780: Capture of Charleston; British success 

(May 12) 247 

Conquest of South Carolina; British 

success 248 

Arrival of the French army at Newport, 

R. I. (July 10) 257 

Camden; British success (August 16). 249 
Arnold's treason, N. Y. (September).. 238 
King's Mountain; American success 

(October 7) 250 

Greene takes command in the South. . 249 
1 78 1 : Cowpens; American success (January 

17) 251 

Greene's retreat across North Carolina. 251 
Guilford Court-house; British success 

(March 15) 253 

Hobkirk's Hill; British success (April 

25) 254 



1783] SUPPLEMENTARY READING 169 

1 781: Eutaw Springs; Ikitish success (Sep- 
tember 8) § 254 

End of the war in the South 254 

Invasion of Virginia by Arnold and 

Cornwall is 255 

Washington's army transferred to \'ir- 

ginia 260 

Capture of Yorktown ; American suc- 
cess (October 19) 261 

1782: Suspension of hostilities 262 

I 'j'i-^ : Peace (September 3) 263 

Topics for Further Study. 

1. The causes of the Revolution. 

2. Early predictions of independence. 

3. The American loyalists. 

4. Washington as a general. 

5. Military resources of the colonies. 

6. Events of the war in a particular state {e.g., North 
Carolina). 

7. Franklin in France. 

8. The military importance of New York. 

9. Why did Great I3ritain fail to subdue the colonies .? 

Supplementary Reading. 

Sources. — The documents in MacDonald's Selecl Charters, 
Nos. 74-80, show the failure of conciliation, and the final steps 
taken by the colonies and the mother country. Niles's Prin- 
ciples and Acts, and the writings of leading Americans, are of 
importance for the entire period of the war. The treaty of 
1783 is in IMacDonald's Select Documents, No. 3. Wharton's 
Diplomatic Corrcsponde7ice 0/ the American Revolution, a govern- 
ment publication, is indispensable in its field. Sparks's Corre- 
spondence of the Revolution gives many letters to Washington. 
On the English side are Donne's Correspondence of George III. 
and Lord North, the Chatham Correspondence, and the works of 
Burke. 

Narrative Accounts. — The general histories already cited 
are very full for the Revolutionary period. To them may 
profitably be added the older works of Grahame and Pitkin, 
Ramsay's History of the A?nerican Revolution, Gordon's History 



lyo THE RESOLUTION 

of the American Revolution, and Greene's Historical View of the 
America7i Revolution. The best recent English view is set forth 
in Lecky's E7ighmd in the Eighteenth Century and Trevelyan's 
A?nerican Revolution. The best concise account of the war is 
Fiske's American Revolution. Important works of a special 
character are: Moore's Z^/ary of the American Revolution; Car- 
rington's Battles of the American Revolution ; Dawson's Battles 
of the United States; hossing's Pictorial Eield-iook of the Revolu- 
tion; E. J. Lowell's Hessians in the Revolution ; Sabine's Ameri- 
can Loyalists; Stone's Ca?npaigJi of Burgoyne; Lyman's Diplomacy 
of the United States; Schuyler's American Diplomacy; E. E. 
Hale's Franklin in France. The more important biographies, 
in addition to those already cited, are Hosmer's Hutchinson, 
Arnold's Artiold, Lossing's Schuyler, Fonblanque's Burgoyne, 
Stone's Brant, Amory's Sullivan, Graham's Morgan, Greene's 
Greene, R. H. Lee's Arthur Lee, Wm. ]?iy'sfay, Ross's Corn- 
wallis, Russell's Fox, Stanhope's Pitt, Morley's Burke, and 
Fitzmaurice's Shelburne. 

Illustrative Literature.- — -Tyler's Literary History of the 
American Revolution; Moore's Songs and Ballads of the Ameri- 
can Revolution; Hawthorne's Septitnius Felton; Churchill's 
Richard Carve!; Coi^m s Bovs of 'yd and Daughters of the Revo- 
lution; Longfellow's Paul Revere' s Ride; Holmes's Ballad of 
the Bosto7i Tea Party, Lexington, and Grandmother'' s Story of 
Bunker Hill Battle; Lowell's Concord Ode; Cooper's Lionel 
Lincoln (siege of Boston), The Spy, and The Pilot (Paul Jones); 
Thompson's Green Mountain Boys and The Ra?igcrs; G. W. 
Curtis's Burgoyne' s Surrefider (centennial oration); Butter- 
worth's Knight of Liberty (La Fayette), Burdett's Margaret 
Moticrieffe (Burr); S. W. Mitchell's Hugh Wynne (Philadel- 
phia), Harte's Thankful Blossom (New Jersey); P. L. Ford's 
Janice Meredith (New Jersey campaign); J. E. Cooke's Bonnybel 
Vane; Bryant's Song of Marion'' s Men, Kennedy's Horseshoe 
Robinson; W. G. Simms's Partisan, Mellichampe, The Scout, 
Katherine Walton, The Forayers, The Eutaws (the last seven on 
the war in the South). 



CHAPTER X 
THE CONFEDERATION 

1777-1789 

268. The New Nation. — The United States had thus 
become a nation, recognized as such by treaties with 
France, Great Britain, and other countries. But the new 
nation had come into existence rather because the Ameri- 
can people could not help it than because the American 
people had any great desire for it. Most Americans at 
this time loved their State far better than they did the 
United States ; and many of them really believed that they 
could keep each State practically independent of all the 
other States, as well as of the rest of the world, with 
little more than a promise that the States should help 
one another in foreign affairs. They were afraid of any 
' ' government of the United States, ' ' lest it should attempt 
to tryannize over the States, as the British Government 
had done over the colonies. 

(i) The Failure of the Confederation. 

269. The Continental Congress had managed the affairs 
of the Union throughout the war. It had never received 
any authority to govern the country; and as far as it 
governed at all, it did so because the mass of the people 
consented to allow it to govern, and because those who 
disliked its government were not strong enough to resist 

171 



172 THE CONFEDERATION [i7 77 

it. The people had given authorit)- to their State govern- 
ments, by forming State constitutions, and thus the State 
governments had something to show for their claims to 
govern their States. Congress had nothing to show; it 
only existed because the States had sent delegates to it, 
and it was hoped that they would continue to do so. 
Now, such a government was really no government; and, 
as Hamilton once said, "a nation without a national 
government is an awful spectacle." People obeyed it 
when they chose to obey it, and disobeyed it when they 
chose to disobey it, which was more commonly the case; 
and no one felt safe in thinking of the future. Congress 
was the only means to unite the States, and for this reason 
it was obeyed cheerfully as long as the danger from the 
British was pressing ; but, as that danger grew less, the 
State governments began to seize more and more of the 
power, until very little was left to Congress. As the 
State governments appointed the delegates to Congress, 
and could recall them at any time, the delegates soon 
came to do nothing more than obey their State govern- 
ments. Thus the Continental Congress became almost 
powerless after 1778. 

270.* A Plan of Government, called the Articles of Con- 
federation, was agreed upon by Congress in 1777. There 
was to be a Congress, composed of delegates from each 
State, no State to be represented by less than two nor 
more than seven delegates, but each State to have one 
vote. The States were forbidden to engage in war unless 
invaded, or to make agreements with each other without 
the consent of Congress. In case of disputes between 
States, a method was prescribed by which the United 
States might decide the question. The charges of w'ar 
and the expenses of the national government were to be 
apportioned among the several States according to the 



lySi] tVESTERN LAND CLAIMS I73 

value of land in each. I'^or the administration of govern- 
ment when the Congress was not in session, a committee, 
consisting of one delegate from each State, was provided. 
To amend the Articles, the approval of the legislatures of 
all the States was necessary. The Articles were not to 
go into force until all the States should agree to them. 
Twelve of the States agreed within the next two years, 
but Maryland refused until March i, 1781. The United 
States thus went through nearly the entire period of the 
Revolutionary War without any frame of national govern- 
ment. The main cause of this long delay was in disputes 
about the western territory. 

271. Land Claims. — Much of the difficulty of arranging 
a new government came from the claim of some of the 
States to western territory. The king had given western 
boundaries to six of the colonies, New Hampshire, Rhode 
Island, New Jerse}-, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Mary- 
land ; and these could not expect to extend farther west- 
ward. New York claimed to have no western boundary; 
but was willing to be bounded as at present. The 
remaining six States, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Vir- 
ginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia, were 
at first supposed to extend westward to the Pacific (§25). 
When Louisiana (§ 155) was transferred to Spain in 1763, 
the western claims of these colonies were cut off by the 
Mississippi River. But they still claimed that they 
extended west as far as the Mississippi. The claim of 
Virginia was the most extraordinary of ail (§ 79). The 
other States which claimed to extend to the Mississippi 
were bounded by parallel lines on the north and south, 
so that they grew no wider as they extended westward. 
But Virginia claimed that its northern boundary ran north- 
west instead of west, so that its territory constantly 
widened as it left the coast. Virginia thus claimed the 



174 THE CONFEDERATION [178? 

whole of the territory now in the States of Kentucky, 
Ohio, Indiana, Ilhnois, Michigan, and Wisconsin. The 
claims of Massachusetts and Connecticut crossed those of 
Virginia and conflicted with them. 

272. These Western Claims seemed unfounded and 
highly unjust to the States whose western boundaries were 
fixed already. Those States asserted, first, that the king, 
by forbidding the sale of lands west of the Alleghanies, 
had fixed those mountains as a western boundary for all 
the colonies not formerly bounded ; and, second, that all 
the States had together won this western territory from 
Great Britain, and should all own it together. The 
result was a general confusion, some of the States selling 
lands in the west, and quarrelling with each other where 
their sales conflicted, and the rest of the States crying out 
against the wrongfulness of such sales. Maryland, the 
State most determined in resistance, refused to agree to 
the Articles of Confederation until assurances were given 
that these western claims would be surrendered. 

273. Land Cessions. — New York gave up its western 
claims to the United States in 1780, and Congress 
earnestly requested the other States to do likewise. In 
1784 Virginia gave up its claim north of the Ohio, Massa- 
chusetts in 1785, Connecticut in 1786. South Carolina 
gave up its western claims in 1787, North Carolina in 
1790, and Georgia in 1802. These cessions gave the 
United States a large western territory (§ 274). Con- 
necticut retained and sold a large strip of land in north- 
eastern Ohio, along Lake Erie, which has ever since been 
known as the Western Reserve. Connecticut also claimed 
the Wyoming country, in the northern part of Penn- 
sylvania, but this claim was given up. A claim of 
Massachusetts to a part of New York was purchased by 
the latter State. 



lySy] THE ORDlNylNCE OF 17 S7 175 

274. The Ordinance of 1787 — The surrender of these 
western lands gave the national government a vast terri- 
tory, for which it soon undertook to provide a form of 
government. As soon as Virginia had given up its claim 
to the northwest, the Congress of the Confederation 
adopted a plan, commonly known as the Ordinance of 
1787, for the government of the territory northwest of the 
Ohio River, or the ' ' Northwest Territory. ' ' Slavery was 
forever prohibited in the Territory. The inhabitants were 
to enjoy religious freedom, trial by jury, and equal civil 
and political privileges ; and common schools were to be 
supported and encouraged. The most important feature 
of the Ordinance, however, was its extension of the system 
of self-governing States. Congress might have attempted 
to govern the new region much as the British Parliament 
governed its colonies, and thus build up an American 
colonial system ; but it chose otherwise. While the 
population was small, indeed, the Territory was to be 
governed by persons appointed by Congress ; but as the 
population increased, it was to be divided into States, not 
more than five in number, each of which was then to be 
admitted into the Union on an equal footing with the 
original States. The five great States of Ohio, Indiana, 
Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin are the outcome of this 
provision. The provisions of the Ordinance, except in 
regard to slavery and the number of States, were soon 
extended to the territory south of the Ohio River. 

275. The Articles of Confederation were found to be 
almost worthless as soon as they were put into effect. 
There was to be one governing body, Congress, and yet it 
was to have no power to lay taxes, regulate commerce, or 
punish law-breaking. It could only advise the States to 
do these things, and the States soon came to pay little at- 
tention to the advice of Congress. Before long, Congress 



176 THE CONFEDERATION [1786 

could get no money to pay the debts of the country, or even 
the interest. Strong States passed laws which injured the 
people of weaker States, and there was no power to hinder 
them. Great Britain still discriminated against American 
commerce, and Congress had no power to prevent it. 

276. Shays's Rebellion. — The people had expected pros- 
perity to come with peace, but they were bitterly dis- 
appointed. Little business was done; every one was 
trying to collect debts, and no one had money to pay; 
and the people were growing poorer and desperate. In 
the winter of ly^G-y, Massachusetts had great difficulty 
in suppressing an insurrection of the poorer farmers in the 
western part of the State, around Worcester and Spring- 
field, who wished to stop the further collection of debts 
by the courts. The affair is usually called Shays's 
Rebellion, from the name of the leader, Daniel Shays. 
Other States were afraid of similar outbreaks, and they 
knew that Congress had no power to help them. 

277. A Change of Government was often proposed, but 
at first there seemed to be little hope of it. The agree- 
ment had been made that the Articles of Confederation 
were not to be changed in the least unless all the States 
should consent. Whenever a change was proposed, in 
order to give Congress more power, some State refused 
to consent, and the plan fell through. Men became dis- 
couraged ; many began to regret the Revolution; and 
some even fell to talking of a monarchy, with Washing- 
ton as king.i 

(2) Foniiation of the Coistitiitioii. 

278.* The First Convention. — The leading men of the 
country, among them Washington, Hamilton, and Madi- 

1 This notion of a monarcliy had been proposed to Washington in 1782 by 
some of the army officers ; but lie had rejected it with indignation. 



1786] 



THE ANNAPOLIS CONVENTION 



177 



son, had been busily corresponding^ with each other, and 
liad reached the conclusion that the root of the trouble 
was in the weakness of the national government, and 
that, somehow or other, the Articles of Confederation 
must be changed. It seemed to them that a convention 
of delegates from the States would do the work better 




State-house at Annapolis. 



than either Congress or the State legislatures. Washing- 
ton induced the Virginia Legislature to call for a conven- 
tion of delegates from the States, to meet at Annapolis 
in 1786. Only five States responded, and the delegates 
took no action beyond recommending the calling of 
another convention to meet the following year, at Phila- 
delphia, to revise the Articles of Confederation. Congress 
approved this call, and all the States except Rhode Island 
appointed delegates. In the mean time, Shays 's Rebellion 
(§ 276) gave a tangible proof of the weakness of the Con- 



1 78 THE CONFEDERATION [1787 

federation, and its inability to give cffccti\'e aid to a State 
in putting down domestic insurrection. 

279.* The Federal Convention met at Philadelphia in 
May, 1787, and chose Washington, who was a delegate 
from Virginia, as its presiding officer. Each State seems 
to have taken pains to send its ablest men as representa- 
tives, and the convention must be regarded as one of the 
most distinguished bodies that ever met. For months, in 
secret session, it held meetings, argued, and settled diffi- 
culties. More than once it was on the point of breaking 
up because of disagreements among its members. Most 
of the difficulty came from what were then "small 
States " — New Hampshire, New York, New Jersey, Dela- 
ware, and Maryland — which wished to give the general 
government as little power as possible, for fear it would 
oppress and injure them. This objection was overcome 
by providing for a Senate in which each State should have 
equal representation, and by making the consent of the 
Senate necessary to the passage of laws. Another diffi- 
culty arose in the unwillingness of northern States to allow 
the slaveholding States to count their slaves in estimat- 
ing their population as a basis for representation in the 
House of Representatives. It was finally agreed that 
three fifths of the slaves should be counted. A third 
compromise protected the slave-trade from interference 
until 1808. September 17, 1787, the convention agreed 
upon a Constitution, and adjourned. The Constitution 
was transmitted to Congress for submission to the States, 
and was to go into effect when approved b}* conventions 
in nine States. 

280. The Constitution provided for a general govern- 
ment which should have power to act, and not simply to 
advise the States. It was to be in three departments: a 
legislative department, or Congress, to make laws; an 



17S7] THE NFAV GOVFRNMENT 179 

executive department, the l^resident and his officers, to 
carry out and enforce the laws made by Congress; and a 
judiciary department, the federal courts, to decide dis- 
puted questions under the laws. The Constitution was 
to be the supreme law of the land, to be obeyed by the 
general government. State governments, and people. If 
the laws passed by Congress were disobeyed, the general 
government was to punish the offence : Congress .was to 
determine the punishment; the President's officers were 
to arrest the offender; and the federal courts were to try 
him. But the punishment was always to be determined 
by Congress, before the offence was committed. 

281. The Legislative Department, or law-making power, 
was represented by a Congress, composed of two branches, 
the Senate and the House of Representatives. Senators 
were to serve for six years, and each State, large or small, 
was to choose two. Representatives were to serve for two 
years, and were to be chosen by the States according to 
population, large States thus choosing more, and small 
States fewer. The two Houses together were authorized 
to lay taxes, borrow money, regulate commerce, coin 
money, establish post-offices, declare war, raise and sup- 
port armies and navies, and employ militia to suppress 
insurrections ; and the States were now forbidden to do any 
of these things, except to lay their own taxes, borrow 
money for themselves, and employ their own militia. As a 
general rule, a majority of each House was to be enough to 
■pass a law ; but, when the President should veto (object 
to) a bill within ten days after its passage, a two-thirds 
vote of each House was necessary to make it a law (§ 469, 
note). Treaties made by the President were to be approved 
by two-thirds of the Senate before going into effect. 

282. The Executive Department, or power to execute 
the laws made by Congress, was represented by a Presi- 



I So THE CONFEDERATION [17^7 

dent, chosen for four years by electors whom the people 
were to choose (§ 295). He was to be commander-in- 
chief of the army and navy, and to appoint most of the 
public officers; but most of the appointments were not to 
take effect until confirmed by the Senate. If he himself 
should misbehave, he was to be impeached (accused) by 
the House of Representatives, and tried by the Senate. If 
he should be convicted and removed, or should die, resign, 
or be unable to perform his duties, the Vice-President 
was to take his place, and become President. Except 
in this case, the Vice-President was merely to preside 
over the Senate, without voting, except in case of a tie. 

283. The Judiciary Department, or power to interpret the 
laws made by Congress, was represented by one Supreme 
Court, and such inferior courts as Congress should estab- 
lish. The judges were to be appointed by the President 
and Senate, and were to hold office for life, except in 
case of misconduct. Whenever an offence should be 
committed against a law of Congress, or whenever the 
m.eaning of a law should be in doubt, or whenever it was 
claimed that the Constitution gave Congress no power to 
pass the law, the case was, generally, to be tried first and 
decided by the inferior courts. If either party was dis- 
satisfied with the decision, he could appeal to the Supreme 
Court, whose decision was to be final. 

284. Other Features. — Three-fifths of the slaves were to 
be counted in calculating the population for Representa- 
tives. Runaway slaves were to be arrested in the States 
to which they should flee, and returned to their owners. 
Congress was to govern the territory of the United States, 
and admit new States to be formed from it. Three 
fourths of the States could change the Constitution by 
Amendments. Each .State was to be guaranteed b}^ the 
United States a republican fcjrm of government. 



i7<^7l l-OKMATION Oh' rAKTIFS i8i 

285.* Formation of Parties. — When the Constitution 
came to be discussed by the people, before the election of 
the conventions to decide upon it, two opposing" political 
parties were at once formed. The people had hitherto 
known very little of any governments except those of their 
States, and the new Constitution, in enlarging the powers 
of the Federal Government, necessarily took something 
from the powers of the States. Those who felt that the 
new Federal Government was absolutely necessary took 
the name of Federalists, and supported the new Constitu- 
tion. Those who feared lest the State governments might 
suffer, or who thought the proposed national govern- 
ment went too far, took the name of Anti-Federalists, and 
opposed the new Constitution. The contest lasted for 
nearly a year. Most of the leading men of the country 
at this time were Federalists. In commending the Con- 
stitution to the thinking people of the country, no one 
rendered so great a service as Alexander Hamilton. 
Hamilton, although but thirty }'ears old, had served with 
credit in the Revolutionary War, and now came forward 
as one of the most brilliant of political writers. In a 
series of papers known as the Federalist,^ Hamilton 
showed in a masterly way the advantages of the Constitu- 
tion, the meaning and scope of its provisions, and the 
benefits likely to follow the adoption of it. The Federal- 
ist has ever since been considered as a masterpiece of 
legal and constitutional exposition. 

286. The Adoption of the Constitution was assured b}- the 
ratification of the ninth State, New Hampshire, in June, 
1788. There were still four States left. Two of them, 
New York and Virginia, ratified soon afterward ; the other 
two, Rhode Island and North Carolina, refused to ratif)-, 
and the Constitution went into force without their assent. 

' A few of the papers under that title were written by Madison and Jay. 



I 82 



THE CONFEDERATION 



[1791 



The last two States had issued paper money, and disUked 
the Constitution, which forbade any State to do so in 
future. The opposition in other States came from a fear 




Alexander Hamilton. 



that the new Federal Government was given too much 
power. To remove this objection, the first ten Amend- 
ments to the Constitution were adopted and ratified in 
1 79 1 (§ 2.97)- 



n^9] THF. UNiriU) STATl-S IN //^V 183 

287. Preparations for Inauguration.— As soon as the 
ninth State had ratified tlie Constitution, the Congress of 
the Confederation appointed March 4, 1789, as the day 
on which the new government should go into operation, 
and New York City as the pLace. It also named a day 
on which the people should choose electors, and another 
day on which the electors should meet in their States and 
vote for President and Vice-President. When the votes 
of the electors were opened and counted, it was found 
that each of them, sixty-nine in number, had cast one of 
his two votes for Washington, so that Washington became 
President by a unanimous vote. Thirty-four of the elec- 
tors had cast their second vote for John Adams, and he 
became Vice-President, as this vote was next largest to 
that for Washington.^ From this time, the Congress of 
the Confederation did little or nothing further. All men 
were waiting anxiously to see whether the new govern- 
ment was to be good or bad. 

(3) Statr of the Country. 

288. The Country was still very thinly settled, and the 
whole of it did not contain as many inhabitants as the 
single State of New York did in 1880. There were hardly 
any important towns except on the coast, and none of 
these were such as we are accustomed to call cities. The 
largest American cities of that time, Boston, New York, 
Philadelphia, and Charleston, had hardly more than 20,000 
persons in any of them, and other towns were only small 
collections of houses. The streets were poorly paved, 
dirty, and rarely lighted at night. Some of the houses 
were large and well furnished, but none of them had the 
conveniences that are so common now. There were no 

^ The manner of voting for President and Vice-President was sliglitly 
changed in 1804 (§ 323). 



184 THE CONFEDERATION [1789 

lucifer-matches, no gas, no oil-lamps. Water was every- 
where carried from the town pump or well. The richest 
people labored under difficulties which are almost unknown 
now, and the life of the poor was very, hard.' 

289. The People generally lived outside of the cities, on 
farms, where life was still harder than -in the cities. It 
was not easy to work with wooden ploughs, and without 
any of the farming tools and machinery which have since 
been introduced ; and the farmer who raised more than he 
wanted found it difficult to sell his surplus. Nearly every- 
thing used by the farmer and his family, even their cloth- 
ing, was made at home ; and a New England farmer 
usually spent very little money during the year for things 
not produced on his farm. In the Middle States and the 
South life was easier, for crops cost less labor, and were 
easily sold for ready money; but even here the farm or 
plantation grew almost everything that was used. News- 
papers and books were very scarce; there were hardly 
any amusements, except hunting and fishing ; and life 
consisted mainly in work and rest. 

290. Travelling was slow, difficult, and often dangerous. 
Along the coast, sailing-vessels were the usual means of 
travel, and a contrary wind might delay the traveller for 
weeks. The voyage from New York to Albany often 
required two weeks. The stage-coaches were slow and 
clumsy. They took from two to three days (as many 
days as the railroad takes hours) to go from New York to 
Philadelphia, and a week to go from New York to Boston. 
The roads were exceedingly bad ; there were still hardly 
any bridges ; and the rivers were crossed by means of 

1 The life of the poor man was made still harder than now because of the 
law of imprisonment for debt. lie who owed money and was unable to pay 
could be arrested and kept in prison, while his wife and children were left to 
care for themselves as well as they could. 



n^g] SETTLEMENT OF THE NORTHIVEST 185 

clumsy and dangerous flat-boats. There was more danger 
then in a voyage from New York City to Brooklyn or New 
Jersey than there is now in a voyage round the world. 

291. Settlement had not yet spread far from the coast. 
Beyond Schenectady, the whole State of New York was 
still an Indian hunting-ground. The great coal and iron 
fields of Pennsylvania were almost unknown. Along the 
coast to the southward, the country was settled only up 
to the headwaters of the rivers that flow into the Atlantic. 
Between the Alleghanies and the Mississippi, the whole 
country was a wilderness, excepting the few settlements 
in Kentucky and Tennessee (§ 157). The northwest was 
almost entirely an Indian territory; and Ohio and the 
present States northwest of it were less known than 
Alaska is now. 

292. Land Companies led the way in the settlement of 
the northwest. Many of them were made up of former 
soldiers of the Revolution, who wished to settle in Ohio 
and found it safer to unite for mutual protection against 
the Indians. One of the first of these, the Ohio Company, 
was formed in 1787; and, partly in order to give it 
encouragement, the Congress of the Confederation passed 
the Ordinance of 1787, for the government of the region; 
and this was confirmed by Congress under the Constitu- 
tion. The company began the settlement of Ohio in the 
following year, at Marietta. Cincinnati, at first called 
Losanti\'ille, was founded in the same year (1788). 

293. The Leading Events of this period were as follows : 

1 78 1-9 : The Confederation § 269 

1781 : The Articles of Confederation s;o into 



force 2 



o 



1783 : Peace with Great Britain 263 

1784: Land cession by Virginia 273 

1786: The Annapolis Convention 278 

Shays's Rebellion 276 



1 86 THE CON hE DERATION [^1^ 

1787: The Federal Convention forms the 

Constitution § 279 

The Ordinance of 1787 adopted 274 

1788: Ratification of the Constitution 286 

Settlement begun in Ohio 292 

1789: The Constitution goes into force .... 2S7 

Topics for Furiker Study. 

1. Why may the years 1781-1787 be called the "critical 
period " of American history .? 

2. Proposed amendments to the Articles of Confederation. 

3. The ratification of the Constitution by a ])articular State 
{e.g., New York). 

4. The meeting-places of the Congress of the Confederation. 

Supplementary Reading. 

Sources. — The Articles of Confederation and the Ordinance 
of 1787 are in MacDonald's Select Documents, Nos. 2 and 4 ; 
for the text of the Constitution, see Appendix II., this volume. 
T\iQ Journals 0/ Congress, 1 774-1 788, give somewhat meagre 
accounts of proceedings; there are also the Secret Jouriials for 
the same period. The proceedings of the constitutional con- 
vention, and of the conventions in the several States, are to be 
found in Elliof s Debates. There are numerous editions of the 
Federalist, the latest being that of Ford. The writings of public 
men continue to be from this time sources of the utmost 
importance. 

Narrative Accounts. — The best concise account is Fiske's 
Critical Feriod of American History. Bancroft's work ends 
with 1783, but the elaborate histories of Curtis, McMaster, 
Schouler, and Von Hoist now become available. On the 
finances of the Confederation see Sumner's Financier and 
Fitiances 0/ the Revolutio7t and History of American Currency, 
and Bolles's Financial History of the Utiited States. On the 
Northwest Ordinance and public lands see Hinsdale's Old 
Northivest, King's Life and Correspondence of Fufus King, and 
Cutler's Fife and Journals of Manasseh Cutler. The slavery 
restriction in the Ordinance is discussed at length in the works 
of Wilson, Greeley, Ste])hens, and others cited under Chapters 
XVII. and XVIII. , post. Roosevelt's Winning of the West is 
the best comp'"ehensive work on the settlement of the west and 



ly^^^y] surrLBMi-NTAKY reading 187 

the formation of new States. Tlic best account of the present 
working of government under the Constitution is Bryce's 
American Comr/iouweailh. Important biographies, in addition 
to those previously cited, are: Morse's Hamilton; Gay's JMadi- 
soft; Rives's Madison; Austin's Eibridge Gerry; Stille's Dickin- 
son; Lodge's Cabot. 




George Washington. 



CFIAPTER XI 

FEDERALIST CONTROL 

1789-1801 

(I) Washington's Administrations: 1789-1797 

George Washington, Va., President. John Adams, Mass., Vice-President. 

294.* Inauguration. — The new government was to have 
been organized at New York City, March 4, 1789; but 
travelHng was slow and difficult, and the members of 
Congress from distant States did not arrive for several 
weeks. When a sufficient number of them had assembled, 
the votes of the electors were counted, and Washington 
was notified of his election as President. He journeyed 
slowly northward from his home in Virginia to New York, 
receiving enthusiastic greetings from the people on the 
way; and on April 30 was sworn into office by the chief 
judge of the State of New York, in the presence of Con- 
gress and a great number of spectators.^ No man was 
so well fitted as Washington to be the first executive head 
of the new republic. He was in his fifty-eighth year, and 
from early manhood his life had been mainly passed in the 
public ser\'ice. In the important positions to which he 
had been successively called, his services were seen to be 
indispensable ; yet he accepted each call with great reluc- 
tance, and with anxious fear lest he might prove a failure. 

' Tlie building {" Federal Hall ") in which the ceremony took place was 
on Wall Street, where the Subtrcasury now stands. 

i8g 



19° FEDERALIST CONTROL [^1^9 

He was one of the richest men in America, and an 
aristocrat by birth, position, and inchnation; and he did 
much to commend the new government to the wealthy 
and aristocratic classes. On the other hand, his dignity, 
self-control, sympathy, and unfailing judgment made him 
revered by the masses of the people, who looked upon him 
as a great leader, in whose hands the affairs of the nation 
were safe. 

295. The Electoral System. — The President and Vice- 
President of the United States are not elected directly by 
the people. When we read that a candidate has received 
a majority of several hundred thousand votes for the 
Presidency, it does not mean that he is elected ; if he 
receives a majority of the electoral votes, he is elected 
even though his opponent should have more popular votes 
than he. Each State chooses as many electors as it has 
Senators and Representatives together ; and whichever 
party gains a majority of these electors secures the Presi- 
dent and Vice-President. At first, each elector merely 
named two persons, and the highest two names on the 
list of those voted for became President and Vice-Presi- 
dent. In 1804 (§ 323), this was changed so that each 
elector now votes for one person for President and one for 
Vice-President. At first, too, the electors voted for whom 
they chose ; but after the first two elections, it became the 
custom for the electors to vote only for the men nominated 
by their party, and it would now be considered extremely 
dishonorable for an elector to vote for any one else. 

296. The Cabinet. — The chief officers of the principal 
departments are called the Cabinet, though there is no 
such word in the Constitution. In Washington's time, 
there were four of these departments, which he filled as 
follows: Secretary of State, Thomas Jefferson; Secretary 
of the Treasury, Alexander Hamilton ; Secretary of War, 



lySg] ORGANIZING THE GOl^HRNMF.NT 191 

Henry Knox, of Massachusetts ; Attorney-General, Ed- 
mund Randolph, of Virt,nnia. The Navy Department 
was added in 1798 (J^ 319); it had previously been a part 
of the War Department. The Post-office Department 
was added in 1829; it had previously been a part of the 
Treasury Department. In 1849, the Department of the 
Interior was organized (§ 520). In 1870, the Department 
of Justice was made an independent department. The 
eighth and last department, that of Agriculture, was 
added in 1889, so that there are now eight members of 
the Cabinet. 

297. Congress then proceeded to pass the laws necessary 
to put the new form of government into active operation. 
This was a work of the greatest difficulty, for everything 
had to be done anew; but it was done so skilfully that it 
has since been necessary to change it very little, except 
by enlarging its operation. Much of the credit for plan- 
ning it must be given to Hamilton. While this work was 
going on, the new Constitution was ratified by North 
Carolina in 1789, and by Rhode Island in 1790 (§ 286); 
so that the original thirteen States were now all under the 
' ' new roof, ' ' as the Constitution had been called. Twelve 
Amendments to the Constitution were proposed by Con- 
gress; and ten of them, having been ratified by three 
fourths of the States, became a part of the Constitution. 

298.* Organizing the Government The old Confedera- 
tion had been so little respected during the last months of 
its existence that people had little interest in remembering 
what it had tried to do ; and Congress now had before it 
the task of organizing the new government from the 
beginning. It is the lasting honor of the Federalists, who 
controlled both the Senate and the House of Representa- 
tives, that they so performed this work that the lines they 
laid down are the ones which, in the main, have been 



192 FEDERALIST CONTROL [17S9 

followed ever since. The three executive departments, 
State, Treasury, and War, were organized and their 
duties defined. The Supreme Court, provided for by the 
Constitution, was established, together with three circuit 
courts and thirteen district courts ; thus bringing the 
judicial system of the United States within easy reach of 
all parts of the country. An Attorney-General, to act as 
a legal adviser to the government, was provided for, and 
the incumbent soon became a member of the so-called 
" Cabinet. " The organization of the judicial .system was 
especially important, because the judiciary had been very 
weak under the Articles of Confederation, and the United 
States had had no legal means, as it now had, of enforc- 
ing its acts and making effective the powers granted to 
it. John Jay was the first chief-justice, but it was some 
years before the Supreme Court rendered decisions of 
great importance. 

299.* Financial Measures. — One of the most important 
questions, and in many ways the most difficult, to be 
dealt with was that of finance. The debt of the United 
States, including unpaid interest, was estimated at about 
$54,000,000; that of the States, at about $25,000,000. 
The annual interest charge on the combined debt would 
amount to over $4,500,000. It was necessary to provide 
for the payment of this debt, if the credit of the United 
States w'as to be maintained ; but the prospect of doing 
so, in view of the unsettled condition of the country, 
seemed dark. The financial genius of Hamilton, who 
early showed himself the strongest member of the Cabinet, 
proved its power in no direction more distinctly than in 
meeting and overcoming these difficulties. Hamilton 
proposed to pay the foreign and domestic debt in full, 
including the arrears of interest, and to have the United 
States assume the Revolutionary debts of the States. The 



179°] NAT ION ^U. BANK I93 

first part of the plan was accepted without difficult}', but 
the proposed assumption of the State debts aroused strong 
opposition. Some of the States had made large payments 
on their debt, while others had paid nothing; and it was 
charged that the general assumption of these debts would 
be grossly unfair. The matter was further complicated 
by a controversy over the location of the national capital. 
Pennsylvania and Virginia were rival claimants for the 
honor, and neither side was disposed to yield to the other. 
Hamilton, with Jefferson's aid, finally arranged a com- 
promise, by which, in return for enough votes to carry 
through the assumption plan, Philadelphia was to be the 
capital for ten years, but after that time the capital was to 
be located on the Potomac. To meet the annual charge 
for interest on the debt, Hamilton proposed a scheme of 
duties on imports and on some articles of domestic pro- 
duction ; and this also was adopted. 

300.* National Bank. — As a further aid to putting the 
finances of the government on a firm basis, Hamilton, in 
1790, proposed the incorporation of a national bank. 
The opposition which had developed over the assumption 
scheme broke out with renewed violence in Congress, and 
was taken up in the country. The relations between 
Hamilton and Jefferson, meantime, had become strained, 
and served to increase the opposition. The Constitution 
says nothing about a bank ; but Hamilton argued that a 
bank was a customary and useful means of assisting 
national credit, and since it was not forbidden by the 
Constitution, Congress might rightfully create a bank as 
a means "necessary and proper" for the execution of 
powers explicitly granted. This "broad construction" 
of the Constitution was strongly opposed by Jefferson. 
Washington was in doubt as to the propriety of signing 
the bill, and called for the written opinions of the mem- 



194 FF.DBRy^UST CONTROL [i79i 

bers of the Cabinet. Hamilton's opinion, with whicli 
Washing-ton concurred, still remains one of the clearest 
and most convincing expositions of the doctrine of " im- 
plied powers" ever written. The bank was at once 
established, and had a prosperous career until i8i I, when 
its charter expired by limitation. 

301.* Slavery. — It will be remembered that slavery and 
the slave-trade had been the occasions of two of the com- 
promises agreed upon by the constitutional convention 
in 1787. There was as yet no general discussion of 
slavery as an institution, nor any general desire to inter- 
fere with it. But in 1790 the subject came before Con- 
gress in such a way as to compel Congress to decide upon 
the principles it would follow in dealing with the matter. 
Certain memorials from societies in Pennsylvania and New 
York, praying for the abolition of the slave-trade, were 
presented in the House of Representatives. In response, 
the House declared that it could not, under the Constitu- 
tion, lawfully prohibit the slave-trade until 1808, although 
it could prohibit American citizens from engaging in the 
African trade for the purpose of supplying foreigners with 
slaves; and that it had no authority to emancipate slaves, 
or interfere with the treatment of them by any State. 
These principles were consistently adhered to by Congress 
for more than seventy years. 

302. New States. — Two of the "old thirteen " States, 
North Carolina and Rhode Island, which had not at first 
ratified the Constitution, ratified it during Washington's 
first term, and thus made the original States unanimous. 
But the State system was not to stop here. In 1791, 
•Vermont (§ 65) was admitted as a State, with the same 
privileges of self-government as the "old thirteen." 
Then, in 1792, came Kentucky, which had been a part 
of Virginia, but which Virginia was now willing to allov/ 



1 79-] FEDERALISTS AND REPUBLICANS 195 

to ijovcrn itself as a State. This was followed, in 1796, 
by Tennessee, which had been a part of North Carolina, 
so that there were sixteen States in the Union \\hen 
Washington's administrations were ended. 

303. Political Contest did not occur for some time. The 
Anti-Federalists (§ 285) had broken up, for the peace and 
quiet which followed the adoption of the Constitution had 
for a time silenced all opposition to it. But man)' of those 
who had been Federalists began to be alarmed by the 
strength shown by the new government. They were 
anxious to keep the State governments strong and vigor- 
ous, for they believed that good government \\as in most 
cases surer from the States, each of which best knew the 
needs of its own people ; and they began to fear that the 
new Federal Government would grow so strong as to 
destroy the States. About 1792, they took the name of 
the Republican party. Washington himself was not a 
party man, but his s}-mpathies were with the Federalists. 
It was not long before his Cabinet (>J 296) was divided by 
the new feeling: Jefferson and Randolph became the 
Republican leaders, and Hamilton and Knox the Federal- 
ist leaders. 

304. The Two Parties were thus the Federalists and the 
Republicans.^ Both parties desired good government: 
but the Federalists thought that this could best be obtained 
through the Federal Government; the Republicans, 
through the State governments. The Federalists wished 
the laws to give as much, and the Republicans as little, 
power as possible to the Federal Government. The 
Federalists were more numerous in the North, the 

1 The name Republican was gradually ehanged, in the next twenty years, 
to Democratic, which is still the name of the party. The present Republican 
party is not the original party of that name, but is more like the old Federalist 
party. 



196 FEDERALIST CONTROL [^19- 

Republicans in the South. The FederaHsts were more 
numerous among the merchants, business men, and com- 
mercial classes; the Republicans, among the farmers. 
Finally, the I'ederalists inclined somewhat toward Fnglish 
ideas of government; the Republicans, a great deal 
toward France, and the right of all men to share in the 
government. When the time came for the second Presi- 
dential election, in 1792, the Republicans had not grown 
sufficiently to contest the election warmly. All the 
electors again voted for Washington ; and John Adams, 
who was a Federalist, received the next largest number 
of votes, and was re-elected Vice-President. 

305. The French Revolution began in 1789. For more 
than I 50 years, the P^rench kings had ruled by their own 
will. All this time the people of P" ranee were grievously 
misgoverned, and were taxed so heavily, for the luxurious 
support of the king and nobles, that they could hardly 
find means to live. Affairs finally became so bad that 
the king was compelled to call the States General together 
again, to consult about raising money. When it met, it 
gradually began to take all the power to itself; and in the 
next few years it abolished the former government, drove 
the nobles out of the country, put the king and queen to 
death, and engaged in a general war against the neigh- 
boring kingdoms of Europe. Great Britain was its prin- 
cipal enemy, and there was very little peace between the 
two countries until 181 5. 

306. Genet's Mission. — France, now a republic, ex- 
pected help from the L^nited States in its war against 
England. A treaty had been made between France and 
the United States in 1778, and P^rance had greatly aided 
this country during the Revolution. The British navy 
was far the most powerful in the world, and was able to 
shut up the P'rench vessels in their own ports; but France 



1793] THE IVHISKEY INSURRECTION 197 

hoi)cd to attack her enemy from America. In 1793, the 
I'^rench Government sent a minister, Genet, to tlic United 
States, to fit out privateers (§ 240) in yVmerican ports 
against British commerce. It was impossible for the 
United States to allow this to be done without joining in 
the war against Great Britain, and Washington firmly 
prevented it, and in addition issued a proclamation declar- 
ing the purpose of the United States to remain neutral 
during the war. The issuance of the proclamation greatly 
offended France. Genet was troublesome and insolent 
all through the year, and was then recalled by France, 
at Washington's request. 

307. The Whiskey Insurrection. — One of the laws passed 
by Congress laid a tax on whiskey. The roads in the 
United States were at that time so bad that the settlers in 
the western part of Pennsylvania and Virginia could not 
carry their grain to market without paying for the carrying 
more than they could sell it for. They had therefore been 
in the habit of turning it into Avhiskey, which had greater 
value for its bulk than the grain from which it was made, 
and was more easily carried. The}' disliked to pay the 
new tax, and, in 1794. their resistance became so angry 
that Washington was compelled to send a small force of 
militia to Pittsburgh to restore order. The disturbance 
was known as the Whiskey Insurrection. 

308. Indian Wars followed the entrance of settlers into 
Ohio. In 1790, the Indians began to attack the new 
settlements. General Harmar was sent against them, and 
was badly defeated near the place where the city of Fort 
Wayne now stands. In 1791, General St. Clair made 
another attempt; and he was also surprised and defeated 
near the headwaters of the Wabash River. The Indians 
now demanded, as the price of peace, that no settlements 
should ever be made on their side of the Ohio River. 



rgS FEDERALIST CONTROL [1796 

But, in 1794, General Anthony Wayne (§ 237) led an 
expedition into the Indian country. The Indians could 
not surprise him, and in a battle, near the present city of 
Toledo, he inflicted a total defeat upon them. They then 
made a treaty by which they gave up forever the present 
State of Ohio. 

309. Jay's Treaty. — The United States had had many 
reasons to be dissatisfied with Great Britain. Great 
Britain still heki Detroit and other forts in the Northwest, 
though it had promised to give them up (§ 263) ; and 
British officers there were believed to have helped the 
Indians against the United States. English vessels on 
the ocean were in the habit of seizing American vessels 
which attempted to trade with any country with which 
England w^as at war. To prevent war, Chief-Justice Jay 
was sent to Great Britain, and, in 1794, concluded a treaty 
with that country. It provided for the surrender of the 
northwestern forts, and for the payment of American 
claims for damages ; but, as it gave some new advantages 
to Great Britain and did not mention some of the points 
in dispute, it excited great opposition in the United States. 
It proved, however, to be sufficient to settle the difficulties 
between the two countries for about ten years (§ 343). 

310. Washington refused to be a candidiate for a third 
term of office as President; and, in 1796, he issued a 
Farewell Address to the American people. It urged 
them to make religion, education, and public good faith 
the foundations of their government, to remain united, 
and to resist foreign influence. It was not meant for the 
American people of that time alone, and its advice will 
never cease to be valuable. At the end of his term, 
Washington retired to his plantation of Mount Vernon, in 
eastern Virginia, where he passed the remainder of his 
life as a private citizen (>^ 325). 



^<)6\ 



PROSPERITY OF THE UNITED STATES 



199 



311. The Presidential Election in 1796 was warmly con- 
tested by tlie two parties. Hie Federalists voted for 
Adams, and the Republicans for Jefferson. Adams 




Mount Vernon. 



was elected President, most of his electoral votes coming 
from Northern States, while Jefferson's came from South- 
ern States. Jefferson stood next to Adams in the vote, 
and thus became Vice-President. 

312. The Prosperity of the United States had increased 
during these eight }'ears, with order and better govern- 
ment. Commerce had grown, because the wars in Kurope 
left trade mainly to American vessels. The American 
flag began to be known in distant seas; and in 1790, the 
Boston ship Columbia, Captain Gray, made the first 
American voyage around the world. Manufactures had 
also revived, and patents began to be issued. In 1793- 
the mint sent out its first coins, about 11,000 copper 
cents; and in 1795, gold coins were issued. To take the 
place of the old and poor roads, turnpike-roads began to 



FEDERALIST CONTROL 



[1793 



be built from a few of the principal cities; they were 
carefully laid out, and the cost of maintaining them was 
paid by tolls collected from travellers. Two small canals 
were dug" in New England ; and the first attempts were 




Fitch's Steamboat. 

made, by John Fitch and others, to move boats by steam. 
They were not successful, but they led the way to 
Fulton's success (§ 337). 

313. The Weakness of the United States. — The country, 
however, was not yet by any means great or strong. It 
was not rich; its government was heavily in debt; and as 
it was very difficult to put aside money enough to equip 
an army or build war-vessels, foreign nations did not care 
much for its friendship. Its population, by the first census 
(in 1790), was ascertained to be 3,929,214. This was 
not nearly as many as there were in 1 890 in the State of 
New York alone, or in Pennsylvania (Appendix IV.). 
The States of Ohio and Illinois, which had hardly any 
white population in 1790, had each nearly as large a 
population in 1 890 as the whole United States had in 
1790. Any one of these four States would now be a 
more dangerous enemy to a foreign nation of the power 
of Great Britain in 1 790 than the whole United States was 
then. 



795] 



IVES TERN DEVELOPMENT 



201 



314. The West had fairly begun to grow. The roads 
to Ohio, whither most emigrants went, were still very 
poor, and the settlers, before reaching their new homes, 
were obliged to journey through a wilderness in Pennsyl- 
vania, and down a river infested with Indians. These 
difficulties, however, could not check immigration. The 
towns of Cincinnati, Marietta, Chillicothe, and Cleveland 
had been founded ; and from this time the Northwest 
grew rapidly in population and wealth. In 1793, the first 




Cincinnati in 1787 (Fort Washington). 

newspaper in the northwest was issued at Cincinnati, while 
it was yet a town of about a hundred log-cabins. In 1794, 
two large passenger-boats ran regularly between Pitts- 
burgh and Cincinnati. They were moved by oars, had 
bullet-proof sides, and were armed with cannon to protect 
them from the Indians. 

315. The Mississippi Treaty. — The people of Tennessee 
and Kentucky had been very much troubled by the 
Spaniards, who claimed to own the lower part of the 
Mississippi River, as well as the country beyond it. In 
1795, a treaty with Spain was made by the United States: 
it allowed both nations to use the river. Thus the 
American settlers on the Ohio River, and in Kentucky 
and Tennessee, were able to send their crops to market 
in the Spanish city of New Orleans.^ 

' Western rivers were onlv lialf useful to settlers until steam was introduced, 



202 FEDERALIST CONTROL [i797 

316. The South was even more prosperous than tlie rest 
of the country. It had produced, up to this time, mainly 
indigo, rice, tar, and tobacco. Cotton had been tried, 
but was not profitable, for its seeds stuck to it so closely 
that a slave could clean but five or six pounds in a day. 
In 1793, Eli Whitney, a Connecticut teacher living in 
Georgia, invented the saw-gin, in which revolving teeth 
dragged the cotton between parallel wires, leaving the 
seeds behind. With this machine, a slave could clean a 
thousand pounds of cotton in a day. The cultivation of 
cotton at once became very profitable, and increased 
enormously. But, unfortunately, negro slavery also 
became far more important to the South, and there was 
now little likelihood of its dying out there, as it was in the 
North (§ 188). 

(I!) John Adams's Administration: 1797-1801 

John Adams, Mass., President. Thomas Jefferson, Va., Vice-President. 

317.* The New President. — John Adams was undoubt- 
edly one of the ablest men in the Federalist party. He 
had had long experience in public life. He had been one 
of the foremost leaders in the Revolution, and a member 
of the Continental Congress. He was the first American 
minister to Great Britain and the Netherlands, returning 
from diplomatic service to become Vice-President. He 
was honest and sincere ; but he had come to have a pro- 
found dislike of a weak national government, and wanted 
to see the new Federal Government still more strongly 
administered. Unfortunately, he had little tact in dealing 

for boats could not easily be rowed against the current. When cargoes were 
sent in flat-boats down the Mississippi to New Orleans, the boats were usually 
broken up and sold as lumber, and the sailors walked or rode back up the 
river-bank. 



179^1 



DIFhICUl.TIFS WITH FRANCE 



203 



with men of opposing- views, and ditl not i^ct on well with 
the Federalist leaders, and particularly with Hamilton, 

whose financial success 

had gi\-en him threat in- 
fluence with the commer- 
cial and mone)'ed classes. 
Adams's term bet^an with 
success, and ended with 
failure. 

318. Difficulties with 
France filled much of 
Adams's administration. 
The French Government 
was controlled by a few 
unusually selfish men, 
who were at ^\'ar with 
most of the world, and 
were determined that the 
United States should pay 
them money for the prix'i- 
lege of remainintj at peace. They turned the American 
minister out of the countr}-; passed laws which made 
American commerce difficult and dangerous; and en- 
couraged their naval officers to capture American vessels 
and cargoes. When special ministers were sent by Presi- 
dent Adams to remonstrate, they were told plainly that 
these proceedings would not be stopped until the men who 
controlled the French Government were paid a large sum 
of money as a bribe for peace. The American ministers 
answered that they would spend "millions for defence, 
not one cent for tribute ' ' ; and the American people 
backed them heartily and prepared for war. 

319. "War with France, though not formally declared, 
really took up the last half of the year 1798. Congress 




John Adams. 



:So4 FEDERALIST CONTROL [i799 

met, set aside the treaties with France, formed an army 
with Washing-ton at its head, increased the navy (§ 296), 
and ordered the capture of French vessels. Several 
naval fights followed, in which a number of PVench pri- 
vateers were taken. The most important battle took 
place near the island of St. Kitt's, in the West Indies, 
where the Constellation, Commodore Truxton, fought 
and captured the French frigate Llnswgcntc.^ 

320. Peace was made in 1799. Napoleon Bonaparte 
overturned the former French government, and put him- 
self in its place. He then offered fair terms of peace to 
the United States, and they were accepted. In a few 
years he made himself emperor of the French, and 
extended his empire over most of western P^urope. He 
could not reach the British Islands, which were guarded 
by the strongest navy in the world ; but the war between 
him and Great Britain lasted almost constantly until his 
downfall in I 81 5 (§ 397). 

321.* Alien and Sedition Laws. — The v^ar excitement led 
the Federalists in Congress to do some extremely unwise 
things. The comments of the Republican newspapers on 
the conduct of the government had been bitter and often 
scurrilous; and as many of the editors were foreigners, 
the Federalists determined to punish them. Laws were 
passed, known as the Alien and Sedition laws, empower- 
ing the President to arrest and imprison aliens, or foreigners, 
whom he should deem dangerous to the peace of the 
country, or even to expel them from the United States, 
if he thought proper; and also laws for the punishment 
of persons who, by Avord or writing, spoke evil of the 
government or any branch of it. Adams did not use the 
power given him, but there were a number of prosecutions 

* The national song, " Hail Columbia," was published and became popular 
durinir this war excitement. 



i.Soo] KENTUCKY AND VIRGINIA RESOLUTIONS 205 

for sedition, aiitl some convictions. The acts were bitterly 
denounced by the RepubHcans, who deckired them to be 
an unwarranted interference with free speech, and insisted 
upon the rit^ht of every man to criticise the government 
or its acts. 

322. Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions. — The Ahen 
and Sedition laws aroused great alarm as to the lengths 
to which the Federalists might go. The legislature of 
Virginia adopted some resolutions, drawn up by Madison, 
declaring that the States were not bound to obey objec- 
tionable laws of Congress. Similar resolutions, drafted 
by Jefferson, were passed in Kentucky. Other States to 
which the resolutions were sent declined to approve them ; 
but the majority of the people felt that the action of the 
Federalists was high-handed and dangerous, and at the 
following election the Federalist party was so completely 
defeated that it never again came into control of the 
government. 

323. The Presidential Election in i <Soo was one of great 
excitement. The Federalists voted for President Adams 
and C. C. Pinckney, of South Carolina; the Republicans, 
for Jefferson and Aaron Burr, of New York. Jefferson 
and Burr received the highest number of electoral votes 
(73), but each had the same number. In case of such 
a tie vote, the Constitution directed that the House of 
Representatives should choose one of the two for President. 
After some delay, and a good deal of angry discussion, 
the House chose Jefferson President and Burr Vice-Presi- 
dent. In consequence of the difficulties of this election, 
the Twelfth Amendment to the Constitution was adopted 
in 1804 (§295). It changed the manner of the election 
of President and Vice-President, and made it as it still 
remains. The electors were now to vote separately for 
President and Vice-President, so that there could be no 



2o6 



FEDERALIST CONTROL 



[1800 




iSoo] LEADING F.J/ENTS 207 

such tic as the one between Jefferson and l^urr, where 
both were of the same party. 

324. The Population of the United States was shown by 
the census of 1800 to be 5,308,483, a considerable g-rowtli 
since 1790 (>$ 313)- In the West, Mississippi and Indiana 
were formed into Territories, showing that their popuhi- 
tion was increasing". The Territory of Ohio was growing 
rapidly, and was soon to be a State. In the older parts 
of the country there was little change except the steady 
growth of population. In 1800, the national capital, and 
the books and papers of the government, were removed 
from Philadelphia (S 299) to the new city of Washington, 
then a straggling half-built village in the woods, with a 
icw public buildings and ver\^ little else. The Capitol 
and the other fine buildings now in the city have been 
built as the country has grown richer. 

325. Washington died suddenly in 1799. His death 
was followed by mourning throughout the United States. 
Even in countries beyond the sea, the event was an- 
nounced as a general loss to mankind. 

326. The Leading Events in the administrations of 
Washington and Adams were as follows: 

1789-93 : Washington's First Term § 294 

1789: Inauguration of the new government. 294 

Ratification by North Carohna 297 

1790: Ratification by Rhode Island 297 

Indian war in Ohio 308 

1791 : Harmar's defeat by the Indians 308 

St. Clair's defeat by the Indians 308 

National bank established 300 

Vermont admitted 302 

1792 : Kentucky admitted 302 

Parties formed 303 

1793 : The cotton-gin invented 316 

Genet's mission from France 306 

1793-7 : Washington's Second Term 304 



2o8 FEDERALIST CONTROL [1800 

1794 : Whiskey Insurrection § 307 

Wayne's defeat of the Ohio Indians. . 308 

Jay's treaty 309 

1795 : Treaty with Spain 315 

1796 : Tennessee admitted 302 

Washington's Farewell Address 310 

I 797-1801 : John Adams's Term 317 

1 798 : War with France 319 

Alien and Sedition laws 321 

1799: Peace with France 320 

Death of Washington 325 

1800: Removal of the capital to Washington 324 

Defeat of the Federalists 323 



Topics for Further Study. 

1. Washington as a party leader. 

2. History of the first ten amendments to the Constitution. 

3. Hamilton's theory of government. 

4. Federalism in a particular State (e.g., Massachusetts). 

5. Grounds of continued ill feeling between Great Britain 
and the United States, to 1800. 

6. Settlement of the Ohio valley. 

7. Early antislavery agitation. 

8. Emancipation of slaves in the Northern States, 

Supplementary Reading. 

Sources. — INIacDonald's Select Documents gives the texts of 
Hamilton's principal financial reports (Nos. 6, 8, 9, and 10), 
the opinions of Jefferson and Hamilton on the constitutionality 
of a national bank (Nos. 10 and 11), Washington's proclama- 
tion of neutrality (No. 13) and message on the Whiskey Insur- 
rection (No. 15), the Jay treaty (No. 14), Adams's message on 
the X Y Z negotiations (No. 16), the Alien and Sedition acts 
(Nos. 17-20), and the Kentucky and Virginia resolutions 
(Nos. 21-23). The presidential messages are in Richardson's 
Messages and Jhipers 0/ the Presidents, a government publica- 
tion, vol. I.; Washington's Farewell Address is in ibid., pp. 
213-224. The great series of so-called Congressional Docu- 
ments begins with the first Congress, in 1789; for their classifica- 
tion and contents, see the bibliographical note to MacDonald's 



iSoo] SUPPLEMENTARY READING 209 

Select Documents. The most important of these documents, 
except ih& Journals of the Senate and House of Representatives, 
are also to be found in the American Slate Papers, For the 
debates in Congress, we have, for this period, the Annals 0/ 
Congress; the most important parts arc also in Benton's 
Abridgment 0/ Debates in Congress. I'hc latter work extends to 
1850. The acts of Congress are i)ublished in volumes, from 
time to time, under the title of Statutes at Large, and also in 
pamphlet form at the close of each session of Congress. Treaties 
are collected in a volume entitled Treaties and Conventions, 
issued as a government document. 

Narrative Accounts. — Gibbs's Administrations of Washington 
and Adams is a special work on this period. To the lives and 
writings of Washington, John Adams, Hamilton, Jefferson, 
Madison, and others, previously cited, should be added Henry 
Adams's Gallatin, Upham's Tifuothv Pickering, Garland's yo//^ 
Randolph, Davis's Burr, and Gilman's Monroe. ]. C. Hamil- 
ton's History 0/ the Republic of the United States is devoted 
primarily to Alexander Hamilton's career. On the details of 
the presidential elections, from this time on, see Stanwood's 
History of the Presidency. Bolles's Financial History of the 
United States, Sumner's American Currency, H. C. Adams's 
Public Debts, and Elliot's Funding System are important for 
financial topics. The early history of slavery under the Con- 
stitution is perhaps best treated in Wilson's Rise and Fall of 
the Slave Power. On the westward expansion see Roosevelt's 
Winning of the West. The numerous articles on American 
history, by Alexander Johnston, in Lalor's Cyclopcedia of 
Political Science, have marked value. 

Illustrative Literature. — H. H. Brackenridge's APodern 
Chivalry; W. G. Simms's Beauchampe ; Cooper's APiles Walling- 
ford; J. E. Cooke's Leather Stocking atid Silk. 



CHAPTER XII 
REPUBLICAN SUPREMACY 

Jefferson's Administrations: i 801-1809 

„ , T7 Ti -J i ( Aaron Bukr, N. Y., Vice-President, iSoi-iSoc. 

Thomas Jefferson, Va., President. - ^.^^ Clinton, N. Y., Vice-President, 1805-.809. 

327. The Nation Abroad. — The great characteristic 
which marks the period of Repubhcan supremacy is the 
recognition of the new nation by other nations, particularly 
in Europe. It is true that governments in that part of the 
world had made treaties with the United .States, thus 
acknowledging the existence of the new nation ; but they 
had as yet no great respect for it. It was poor; it had 
no large armies ; and it was so far away from them that 
they had little fear that it would resent injuries. They 
were very prone, then, particularly Great Britain, to act 
unjustly toward American merchant-vessels and seamen. 
After years of such injuries, the American Government 
was forced into war, in which it showed at last that, 
though it had no large armies, it was a great naval power; 
that its men and war-vessels could do what those of no 
other nation could do, namely, fight British vessels on 
equal terms with success. 

328. The Nation at Home. — Jefferson and his party 
believed in State sovereignty (§§ 303, 304). If two States 
that are sovereign to the fullest extent, such as France 
and Si)ain, join for any purpose, either can withdraw 
whenever it thinks best. If the States of the Union were 

210 



iSciJ JEFFERSON 211 

sovereign to a like extent, any one of them could with- 
draw, or secede, whenever it thought best. The struggles 
of these }-ears, and particularl)' the war with Great 
Hritain, taught the Republican part)- that it must support 
the nation, whether the States liked it or not. So well 
was the lesson learned that, but for slavery, there would 
never again have been any danger of secession ; and most 
men thought that there was no further danger from slavery 
when the importation of slaves was forbidden, in 1808. 

329.* The President. — Jefferson had been long in public 
life, and had many claims to popular confidence and 
esteem. He was born in 1743, became a lawyer, and 
served successively as member of the Continental Con- 
gress, governor of his State, and minister to France, 
returning from abroad to become Secretary of State under 
Washington. As Secretary, he soon quarrelled with 
Hamilton, and at the beginning of 1794 retired from the 
Cabinet. In the mean time, he had come forward as the 
leader of the Democratic, or Republican, party, which 
opposed the strong centralized government of the Federal- 
ists, and was elected Vice-President in 1796, and Presi- 
dent in 1800. He was a poor public speaker, but a fluent 
and effective writer, and exercised an extraordinary con- 
trol over his party. 

330. Jefferson's Inauguration marks a great change in 
the people and in their feelings. Before the Revolution, 
and for some time after it, the people had been rather 
slow in their ways of thinking, speaking, and acting. 
Except in New P^ngland, they were accustomed to leave 
political matters to a few men, to the king, to his 
governors, or to rich or influential men in their own 
colonies. Generall)-, those who owned no property were 
not allowed to vote, and those who owned property 
and voted were disposed to keep the rest in order by 



2 12 REPUBLIC/iN SUPREMACY [iSoi 

strong government. But the change to a republic had 
changed the feeHngs of the people. They had become 
more like the Americans of the present time, active, 




Thomas Jiu-kkkson. 

pushing, and impatient of too much dignity in their 
neighbors. 

331. The Republicans. — The real reason why Jefferson 
and his party had come into power was that they repre- 
sented the new men and the new feehng. They even tried 



i8oi] DOMESTIC AFFAIRS 213 

to show the chaiii^c by their manners and ch'ess. They 
ceased to wear the wigs or cues of former times; wore 
their own hair, cut short; laughed at the formal manners, 
dignity, and dress of the Federalists ; and insisted that 
every man should have a vote, property or no property. 
From this time, their ideas largely controlled the country, 
outside of New England ; and in Congress they made the 
laws to suit themselves. But they made very little change 
in the forms of government which the Federalists had left 
them ; and our government is still administered very much 
after the plans introduced by the Federal party. 

332. The Federalists. — To the Federalists, the changes 
introduced by the Republicans seemed dangerous in the 
extreme. Some of the leaders showed their disapproval 
by retiring from political life altogether, while others were 
forced into retirement by defeat at elections. In New 
York, where the Vice-President, Aaron Burr, had much 
political influence, the feeling was very bitter; and the 
greatest of Federalists, Hamilton, was shot and killed by 
Burr in a duel. Between the Federalists and the Repub- 
licans there were never any important points of contact; 
and from this time the Federalists ceased to have, as a 
party, much weight in national affairs. 

(i) Domestic Affairs. 

333. Domestic Affairs under Jefferson were at first marked 
by a wonderful prosperity. American commerce increased 
enormously; for as nearly all Europe was now at war, it 
was not safe to send goods in European vessels, which 
were liable to capture by their enemies, and American 
vessels obtained far more than their natural share of the 
trade of the world. Money came in rapidly to the 
government of the United States, and its debt was soon 



514 REPUBLICAN SUPREMACY [1^03 

nearly paid. Above all, the territory of the United States 
was move than doubled by the purchase of Louisiana. 

334. Louisiana Purchase. — The great territory between 
the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains (§ 155), 
called Louisiana, no longer belonged to Spain. Napoleon 
had bought it in 1800, and intended to make it a strong 
French colony. But in 1803, perhaps having reason to 
believe that his enemy Great Britain intended to attack it, 
he sold it to the United States for $15,000,000. Before 

1803, the United States covered 827,844 square miles; 
the purchase of Louisiana more than doubled this, adding 
over 1,100,100 square miles of new territory (§773). 
Steamboats and railroads, by carrying immigration into 
the new territory, have since made it very valuable. 
There have been formed from it the States of Louisiana, 
Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Kansas, and Nebraska, North 
and South Dakota, Montana, and Indian Territory, and 
a great part of the States of Minnesota, Colorado, ahd 
Wyoming.^ 

335. The Oregon Country, covering the present States of 
Oregon, Washington, and Idaho, was then unknown. In 

1804, President Jefferson sent a land expedition under 
Lewis and Clarke, which explored the upper Missouri 
River, and the country around the Columbia River to the 
Pacific Ocean. This gave the United States a claim to 
this territory also, though its claim was not admitted for 
nearly forty years (§ 523). 

336.* Ohio, the first State formed from the Northwest 
Territory under the Ordinance of 1787 (§ 274), was 
admitted into the Union in 1802. Its constitution was 
noticeable for the liberality of its provisions, and the 

^ It was thought at the time that Louisiana included Texas also, but in 
1819 the United States gave up this claim to Spain in return for Florida 
§414)- 



i8o7] 



THE STEAMBOAT 



^5 



power given to the people as a whole, rather than to par- 
ticular classes. 

337. The Steamboat. — Tlie )'ear 1807 is marked by one 
of the most important events in American history — Robert 
Fulton's invention of the 
steamboat. The steam- 
engine of Watt had been 
known and used for forty 
years, and man}' unsuccess- 
ful attempts had been made 
to use it in turning the pad- 
dle-wheels of vessels. Ful- 
ton succeeded ; and his first 
clumsy vessel, the Clcnnoiit, 
made the trip from New 
York to Albany, 1 50 miles, 
in 32 hours. The appear- 
ance of his boat was not 
materially different from 
that of a small side-wheel 
steamer of the present day. 
This was the best thing 

that had yet happened for the West. The first western 
steamboat was built at Pittsburgh in 181 1, and within a 
few years every western river had its steamboats. Noth- 
ing had yet helped emigration so much, or given the 
settlers so many new ways of making money. The great 
rivers of the United States could now be useci against 
the current, as well as with it, and steamboats carried 
passengers and freight where rowboats had not been able 
to carry them.^ 




Roi n 1 !• 1 1 



^ The first sea-going steam-vessel, the Sn''annah, crossed the Atlantic in 
18 19, but ocean navigation by steam was not permanently established until 
nearly twenty years afterwards (§ 447). 



1 



2i6 REPUBLICAN SUPREMACY [1806 

338. The Wealth of the Country was steadily growing, 
and the people were busily seeking new means of industry. 
The system of patents, which gave an inventor the exclu- 
sive right to his invention all over the United States, was 
rapidily increasing the number of useful American inven- 
tions. Attempts were made to produce a mowing and 
reaping machine, but they were not yet successful (§448). 
In 1806, the first boat-load of anthracite coal was shipped 
to Philadelphia, but no one knew how to use it.^ 

339. The Presidential Election in 1804 resulted in the 
success of the Republicans. Jefferson was re-elected 
President, and George Clinton was elected Vice-President. 
Burr, who had been elected Vice-President in 1800, had 
fallen out of favor with his party and was not re-elected.^ 

340. Burr, who had retired from public life in 1805, did 
not long remain quiet. In 1806 he collected armed men 
in Kentucky and Tennessee, and along the Ohio River, 
and sailed with them in boats down the Mississippi. It 
was suspected that he intended to set up a separate 
government of his own in the Mississippi valley, or to 
attack the Spanish province of Mexico. He was stopped 
by the United States authorities at Natchez, and sent back 
to Richmond to be tried for treason. As he had not 
actually borne arms against the United States, he was 
acquitted, although Jefferson made every effort to secure 
his conviction. Burr disappeared from public view. 

1 At first, Americans knew only open stoves, burning wood or soft coal. 
The anthracite, or " stone-coal," fields of Pennsylvania were discovered in 
1791, but the coal was not generally used until about 1830 (§ 446). 

^ The P'ederalist candidates were C. C. Pinckney, of South Carolina, and 
Rufus King, of New York. They received only 14 electoral votes out of 176 
(§ 295)- 



tSo5] 



FOREIGN AFFAIRS 



217 



(2) Foreign Affairs. 

341. The Barbary States, Morocco, Altjiers, Tunis, and 
Tripoli, on the Mediterranean coast of Africa, were 
Mohammedan countries. They considered Christian 
nations to be heathens, and, unless they were paid to 
remain at peace, captured Christian vessels and made 
slaves of the sailors. The greatest nations of Europe, as 
well as the United States, had always submitted to this 
demand, and had paid these pirates liberally for peace. 




Barbary States. 



342. The Tripolitan War began in 180T. Tripoli de- 
manded more money from the United States, and, when 
it was refused, began to capture American vessels. The 
little American navy was sent to the Mediterranean. 
One frigate, the PliiladelpJiia, ran aground in the harbor 
of Tripoli, in 1803, and was captured; but Lieutenant 
Decatur, with twenty picked sailors, sailed into the harbor 
and burned her. A land expedition attacked Tripoli 
from the eastward, and the navy bombarded the town 
from the harbor; and in 1805, Tripoli yielded and made 
peace. Other nations followed the American example, 
and in a few years the Barbary pirates were forced to 
remain at peace without being paid for it (§ 404). 



21 8 REPUBLICAN SUPREMACY [1807 

343.* Orders and Decrees. — The wars in Europe between 
Great Britain and France had by this time become of 
world-wide importance. Great Britain had the most 
powerful navy in the world, and France the strongest 
army; and each country sought to compel other countries 
to side with it. It was difficult for the United States to 
escape the aggressions of one or other of the combatants ; 
and as events turned out, it became a prey of both. 
Jay's treaty (§ 309) expired in 1806, and the United 
States was left without a commercial treaty with Great 
Britain. In the same year, Great Britain, by an Order 
in Council, declared a blockade of all those parts of 
Europe which had sided with France, and forbade vessels 
to enter their harbors. Napoleon thereupon issued the 
Berlin Decree, forbidding neutral vessels to enter British 
harbors. In 1807, Great Britain replied by forbidding 
neutral vessels to enter any ports in Europe except those 
of Great Britain and of Sweden, the latter country being 
friendly to Great Britain. Napoleon then issued the 
Milan Decree, ordering the capture and sale of any neutral 
vessel which should enter a British harbor. As the 
United States, being neutral, had been absorbing more and 
more of the carrying trade with Europe, these orders and 
decrees, if enforced, meant the annihilation of its foreign 
commerce. Great Britain also claimed the right of search 
and impressment; that is, the right to stop a vessel 
belonging to another nation, examine its cargo, and take 
off sailors who seemed to the British officers to have been 
born in Great Britain or Ireland. Nothing was more 
exasperating to the United States than the assertion of 
such a claim, or more humiliating than to be compelled 
to submit to the exercise of it. 

344. American Policy. — American commerce suffered 
severely from these measures. Great numbers of vessels 



iSoy] THE EMBARGO AND NON-INTERCOURSE ACTS 219 

were seized and sold b}' (ircat Britain and l*'rance, and 
many Americans were forced to serve on l^ritisli war- 
vessels. If the y\merican Government had been as stroni^ 
as it now is, it would have compelled the t\\ o contending 
nations to respect the riij;hts of its citizens. But the 
countr}', though growing rapidly, was still poor and weak. 
The Republicans, whose strength was among the farmers 
and the people of the smaller towns, were anxious to pay 
off the national debt, and begrudged the expense of a 
navy. Few persons believed that, even if the country 
had a navy, it would be able to withstand Great Britain, 
whose navy was popularly regarded as invincible. Jeffer- 
son, whose views on all these points were the views of his 
party, was determined to have peace ; and even when a 
British frigate, the Leopard, stopped the United States 
frigate Chesapeake, which was in no condition for fighting, 
and compelled her to give up four of her sailors, the 
President successfully resisted the country's desire to 
declare war. When all the injuries together had become 
unbearable, the Republican party decided to stop American 
commerce for a time, in hope of bringing Great Britain to 
reason by injuring her trade rather than b}^ open war. 

345. The Embargo and Non-Intercourse Acts. — To follow 
out this plan. Congress in 1807 passed the lunbargo 
Act, which forbade the departure of any vessel from the 
United States for a foreign port. But it turned out to be 
a complete failure. Great Britain liked it because it left 
almost all trade to British vessels. In New England, 
whose people were then largely supported by commerce, 
all business was broken up, the people became poorer and 
desperate, and a few of them began to talk of separating 
from the Union. In other parts of the Union, also, it was 
found that crops were of little value when they could no 
longer be carried to foreign countries and sold. Nothing 



2 20 REPUBLICAN SUPREMACY [1808 

had been gained by violent interference with the natural 
order of things. So great and general was the dissatisfac- 
tion with the Embargo that, in 1809, Congress passed 
instead of it the Non-Intercourse Act. This still forbade 
trade with Great Britain or France while their offensive 
measures were continued, but allowed trade with other 
countries. 

346.* The Presidential Election. — This state of things 
was an unhappy ending for Jefferson's administrations. 
The people were hopeless of fair treatment from Great 
Britain or France, and were almost ready for war against 
the principal offender, Great Britain. The election of 
1808, however, notwithstanding the disastrous effects of 
the Embargo and Non-Intercourse laws, resulted in Repub- 
lican success. James Madison, of Virginia, was chosen 
President, and George Clinton was re-elected Vice-Presi- 
dent. Madison was as anxious for peace as Jefferson was. 
But the views of the Republicans were changing. They 
had wished the States to be strong, and as independent as 
possible ; but they were beginning to see that, in dealing 
with other nations, a strong national government was a 
necessity. Moreover, the membership of Congress, par- 
ticularly of the House of Representatives, was showing 
an increasing percentage of young men ; and it was 
unlikely that the aggressions of either Great Britain or 
France, if they should continue, would long be borne 
without forcible resistance. 

347. The Leading Events of Jefferson's administrations 
were as follows : 

1 801-05 : Jefferson's First Term § 329 

1801 : War with Tripoli 342 

1802 : Admission of Ohio 336 

1803 : Burning of the Philadelphia 342 

Purchase of Louisiana 334 



iSo9J SUPPLEMENTARY READING 221 

1804 : Lewis and Clarke's expedition 335 

1805 : Peace with Tripoli 342 

1805-09 : Jefferson's Second Term 339 

1806: European blockade by Great Hritain.. 343 

Berlin Decree by Napoleon 343 

1807: Orders in Council by Great J^ntain. . 343 

]\Iilan Decree by Napoleon 343 

Affair of ihc Leopard d.n(\ Chesapeake.. 344 

The Embargo 345 

Burr's expedition 340 

Fulton's invention of the steamboat. . 337 

1809: The Non-Intercourse Act 345 

Topics for Eurthf.r Study. 

1. Jefferson as a party leader. 

2. The life of Chief-Justice JNIarsliall. 

3. Burr's western schemes: 

4. Geography of the Louisiana ])urchase. 

5. Early steamboat routes. 

Supplementary 1<.eading. 

Sources. — The Louisiana treaty, Jefferson's message on the 
Burr conspiracy, and the Embargo Act are in MacDonald's 
Select Doawients, Nos. 24, 25, and 27. Extracts from the 
Berlin and Milan decrees and the English Orders in Council 
are in the University of Pennsylvania D'anslalions and Reprints, 
vol. II., No. 2. 

Narrative Accounts. — The best general account of this 
period is Henry Adams's History of the United States, covering 
the period 1800-18 17. The biographies mentioned in connec- 
tion with Chapter XI. .should of course be consulted also. 
Barbe-Marbois's History 0/ Louisiana, Parts 11. and in,, is im- 
portant for the cession of 1803. On Burr's conspiracy see, 
besides Adams's United States, iii.. Barton's LJ/e and Times of 
Burr, vol. 11., chaps. 21-26, and Randall's [efferson, vol. in., 
chap. 5. King's Ohio is a good brief history of the State. 
vSullivan's Familiar Letters is an interesting book of reminis- 
cence. 

Illustrative Literature. — M. E. Seawell's Decatur and 
Somers; E. L. Bynner's Zachary Phips; J. K. Paulding's John 
Bull diwd Brother Jo7iatha7i;Y.. E. Hale's J/?;? without a Country, 



CHAPTER XIII 



THE SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN 



Madison's Administrations: 1809-18 17 

, ,, ,r Ti ■ 1 . i CiHo. Clinton, N. Y , Vice-President, i8oq-i8i-?. 

James Madis„n, Va., President, -j t:LBRiDGE Gerry, Mass., Vice-President, 18.3-18.7. 

348. The New President. — James Madison, of Virginia, 
the new President (>^ 346), was one of the ablest leaders 

of the Republican party. 
He had been a member 
of the Congress of the 
Confederation, of the 
Convention of 1787, the 
leader of the Republi- 
cans in Congress after 
1789, and Secretary of 
State under Jefferson. 
He was a close friend 
of Jefferson, but more 
anxious for a strong na- 
tional government than 
Jefferson had been. 

349. The English Diffi- 
culties. — The troubles 
with Great Britain came 
to a head in Madison's 
first term. The Non- 
Intercourse Act came to 
Con- 
22 




James Madison. 

an end (18 10) without having produced any effect 



I Si 2] DECLARATION OF IV AR 223 

grcss then declared that, if either Great Britain or France 
should revoke the offensive decrees, the Non-Intercourse 
Act would be revived at^ainst the other nation. Napoleon 
at once announced that he had revoked his decrees. This 
was a falsehood, for he enforced his decrees as severely 
as ever; but the falsehood served Napoleon's purpose by- 
arraying the United States and Great Britain against one 
another. The United States revived the Non-Intercourse 
Act against Great Britain, and Great Britain became more 
overbearing than ever. Her war-vessels watched the 
whole eastern coast of the United States, and captured 
American merchantmen, often without giving any reason.^ 

350. Tecumseh. — British officers were believed to be 
stirring up the Indians of the Northwest to war. The 
Indians, under a chief named Tecumseh, broke into hos- 
tilities, and were defeated by Governor W. H. Harrison 
in a battle at Tippecanoe, near the present town of 
Lafayette. Tecumseh and his warriors soon afterward 
entered the British army. 

351. War with Great Britain. — Toward the end of 
Madison's first term the patience of the people became 
exhausted. When new Congressmen were to be chosen, 
the "submission men," who wished to avoid war, were 
defeated, and " w'ar men " were elected. Madison him- 
self, who still wished for peace, was forced to yield to the 
general feeling, and June 18, 18 12, Congress declared 
war. The presidential election following was without 
incident, and resulted in the re-election of Madison, with 
Elbridge Gerry, of Massachusetts, as Vice-President. 
The vote of Pennsylvania turned the scale in favor of 
Madison. The Republicans were now so completely in 

1 In 181 1, the United States frigate President hailed the British vessel 
Little Belt off Cape Charles, and was answered by a cannon-shot. In the 
fight that followed, the British vessel was badly beaten. 



224 THE SECOND IVAR IVITH GREAT BRITAIN [1812 

control of the country that the Federalist opposition was 
powerless.^ 

352. The Preparations for War ajjainst Great Britain 
cannot be said to have been very valuable. The British 
navy numbered about 1,000 vessels, many of them the 
most powerful warships afloat. The American navy num- 
bered 12, none of them of large size, with a number of 
cheap, small, and useless craft called "gunboats." 
Some efforts had been made to increase the American 
army; but the men were undisciplined, and the officers 
were generally politicians, who knew nothing about war. 
The consequence was that the Americans were beaten in 
almost every land-battle, until the fighting generals got 
rid of the political officers and disciplined the men 
properly (§§ 364, 391). In the navy there were no 
political officers, and few failures; and most of the glory 
of the war was gained, to the great surprise of the people 
of both countries, by brilliant and successful sea-fights. 

353. The Population of the United States in 18 10 was 
7,239,881 ; that of Great Britain and Ireland was nearly 
19,000,000. The larger population of Great Britain 
was gathered into a space about as large as New York, 
Vermont, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey together, so that 
it could act promptly and effectively; while that of the 
United States was scattered over a vast territory, extend- 
ing from the Atlantic Ocean to the Rocky Mountains, 
nearly six times as long and ten times as wide as Great 
Britain. In what is now the State of Indiana there were but 
25,000 persons, in Illinois 12,000, and in Michigan 5,000. 

354. The Principal Theatre of War, on the boundary 
between Canada and the United States, was then a wilder- 

' Madison had 128 electoral votes, and De Witt Clinton, of New York, 89. 
Clinton was a Republican, but received the support of the Federalists. The 
Federalist candidate for Vice-President was Jared Ingersoll, of Pennsylvania. 



I Si 2] FAILURES IN THE NORTH 225 

ness. There was no considerable town in the whole 
western half of the State of New York, or on the lake 
shore ; and the maps of the time do not show such places 
as Buffalo, Rochester, or Syracuse, even as villages. 
There were hardly any passable roads there or north and 
west of the Ohio River; and food for the troops was 
carried to them with great difficulty and at a cost some- 
times of five or six times its original value. The present 
States of Alabama and Mississippi were still more destitute 
of inhabitants ; and the traveller or army passing from the 
settled country around Nashville to New Orleans or 
Mobile went nearly all the way through a hostile Indian 
country. 

355. The Dislike to the War was very general in New 
England, where the people believed that it was needless 
and wrong. Money was scarce in the United States, 
and, scarce as it was, most of it was in New England. 
The government attempted to carry on the war b}- raising 
loans. But those who supported the war had very little 
money, and those who had money to spare refused to lend 
it to support the war. The consequence was that the 
government was almost constantly in want of money, and 
toward the end of the war could hardly get enough money 
to arm, clothe, and feed its soldiers, or build war-vessels. 

(3) Failures in the NortJi : iSi2-i^. 

356. Hull's Surrender began the list of failures in the 
North. The most important frontier town of the north- 
west was Detroit, in which William Hull, governor of 
Michigan Territory, resided. Immediately after the 
declaration of war he was ordered to cross the river and 
invade Canada. He did so, but retreated to Detroit as 
the British troops under General Brock advanced toward 



2 26 THE SECOND IV A R IVITH GREAT BRITAIN [1812 

him. Brock followed, besieged Detroit, and threatened 
to give his Indians liberty to kill unless the place was 
given up. After a siege of less than a week, Hull sur- 
rendered Detroit, and with it the whole country northwest 
of Ohio. 1 

357. Invasion of Canada. — In the autumn of 18 12, an 
attempt was made to invade Canada from Lewiston, New 
York, by crossing the Niagara River. While the braver 
part of the men crossed and assaulted the British, who 
were posted on Oueenstown Heights, the rest could not 
be persuaded to leave Lewiston. The men who had 
crossed, 1,000 in number, were killed or captured. 
Another attempt was talked of, but the men were un- 
trained and disobedient ; the officers quarrelled with one 
another ; and this attempt was given up. The com- 
mander-in-chief. General Dearborn, then collected the 
army at Plattsburgh, to attack Montreal. The principal 
event of this campaign was a sharp fight between two 
parts of the army, which mistook one another for the 
enemy; otherwise nothing was done. 

358. In the West, Harrison (i^ 350) was made com- 
mander-in-chief, and he exerted himself to the utmost to 
drive the British out of Detroit. His troops were Ken- 
tucky and Ohio volunteers, and they succeeded excellently 
in scattered fighting against the Indian villages ; but they 
had not yet learned military obedience, and when they 
were formed into an army failed to accomplish anything 
during the }'ear 18 12. 

359. The River Raisin. — As soon as the swamps and 
lakes of the Northwest were frozen over, in the early 
winter of 1813, Harrison renewed his efforts to drive the 
Jkitish out of Detroit. His advanced force, under General 

' Hull was court-martialled and sentenced to be sliot for cowardice, but 
was pardoned on account of his services in tlie Revolutionary war. 



tSi3] 



FORTS MEIGS AND STEPHENSON 



Winchester, reached the Raisin River, in southern 
Michicjan, and was there attacked by the British General 




SCALE OF MILES 



Proctor. Wincliester surrendered as Hull liad done; and 
Proctor cruelly allowed his Indians to butcher the wounded 
prisoners.^ 

360. Forts Meigs and Stephenson — Harrison was now 
forced back, and took refuge in Fort Meigs, near the 
present town of Defiance. Here he Avas besieged by 
Proctor, in the spring of 1813. Twelve hundred Ken- 
tuckians relie\'ed Harrison, though many of them were 
killed or captured in the effort; and Proctor retreated. 
Later in the }X'ar he again attacked Fort Meigs without 
success, and then turned to Fort Stephenson, near the 
present town of Sandusky. The fort was defended by a 

' Most of the men m.Tssacrt'il at the Raisin were Kentiickiaiis, ami from 
that time the Kentucky troops went into battle calling to one another, " Re- 
member the river Raisin." 



2 28 THE SECOND IV AR IVITH GREAT BRITAIN [1813 

young officer named Croghan. He had but one cannon 
and a few men ; but he used both so vigorously that 
Proctor was beaten off. 

361. Battle of the Thames. — In September, 18 1 3, Perry's 
capture of the British squach'on (^^ 381) gave the Ameri- 
cans command of Lake Erie. Plarrison at once put his 
forces on Perry's vessels, and crossed directly from Ohio 
into Canada. He overtook the retreating British army, 
under Proctor, at the Thames River, and forced them into 
battle. After a sharp conflict, the British were completely 
defeated, and most of them were captured. The great 
Indian leader, Tecumseh, was killed. This battle ended 
the war in the northwest. Detroit and Michigan again 
fell into the hands of the Americans, and detachments 
were sent out which recaptured and held Peoria and other 
outlying forts. 

362. In New York, early in 18 13, Dearborn crossed the 
lake from Sackett's Harbor to Toronto (then called 
York), captured it, and burned the British supplies. He 
then returned to the American side, near Lewiston, and 
there crossed again int© Canada. But his operations 
were badly managed; his troops were beaten in two 
small battles ; and he returned to New York and re- 
signed.^ 

363. Chrysler's Farm. — Late in 18 13, General Wilkin- 
son, Dearborn's successor, took the American forces at 
Plattsburgh and Sackett's Harbor, and moved down the 
St. Lawrence River toward Montreal. One battle was 
fought, at Chrysler's Farm, on the Canada side, nearly 
opposite Ogdensburgh ; but neither side could claim a 
victory. The expedition was then given up. The men 

' Duriiij^ this invasion of Canada, the British attacked Sackett's Harbor, 
but were beaten off by General Jacob fjrown, one of tlie new generals who 
were to achieve success the next year. 



l8i2] NAy/II. SUCCF.SSES 229 

were not to blame for these failures: the officers wxm'c as 
inefficient as ever, and quarrelled continually.^ 

364. Reorganization. — At the close of the year 18 13, 
the American Government had learned something from 
the disasters on the northern frontier. As fast as possible, 
the political officers were weeded out, and the officers 
who had shown fighting qualities were promoted to their 
places. The chief command was given to General Jacob 
Brown, an officer who, without military education, had 
shown remarkable military abilities. Next to him were 
Scott, a young man of 27 (§ 534), and Ripley. The 
winter of i8i3-i4was passed in training the men; but, 
even to do this much, it was necessary that Scott should 
translate a text-book of tactics from the French, for the 
American army had not yet had even a system of drill. 
The effects of the reorganization were evident in the fol- 
lowing year. The men had confidence in themselves, in 
their training, and in their leaders, disasters ceased, and 
successes took their place (§ 391). 

(4) S2tc cesses 0)1 the Ocean. 

365. The American Navy had not been expected to do 
much in the war, and it had even been proposed to forbid 
its leaving port, for fear it might be captured at once by 
the British. But the British officers and men had become 
so accustomed to victory over all other nations that they 
were now careless in training and discipline; while the 
little American navy was in a state of perfect training, 
and eager to show what it could do. The consequence 

1 During this invasion of Canada, the American forces near Lewiston were 
attacked. They retreated disgracefully, again by the fault of the com- 
manding officer, and left the whole of that part of the frontier open to the 
British, who burned and destroyed everywhere, in revenge for the attacks 
upon Canada. 



2 30 THH SECOND IV A R WITH GREAT BRITAIN [1812 

was a succession of brilliant victories of vVmerican over 
British vessels, which threw the American people into a 
fever of rejoicing, and startled the rest of the world. It 
thoroughly alarmed Great Britain. Hitherto her naval 
officers had been dismissed from her service if they ran 
away from a vessel only a little superior in force. Now 
they received strict orders not to fight an American vessel 
unless on equal terms. 

366. The First Cruise took place immediately after the 
declaration of wiw. The larger part of the little navy left 
New York and sailed through the northern Atlantic Ocean. 
Nothing was accomplished, except that one of the vessels, 
the Essex, Captain Porter, captured the British sloop-of- 
war Alert, after a short fight. Another vessel, the Con^ 
stitiitio)i. Captain Hull, while sailing to New York to join 
m the cruise, fell in with a British fleet, and was hotly 
chased. She escaped into Boston after a chase of three 
days, in which Hull showed admirable skill and seaman- 
ship. ^ 

367. Constitution and Guerriere. — In August, the Con- 
stitution put to sea from Boston. While cruising in the 
Gulf of St. Lawrence, she fell in with the Giicrricrc, one 
of the vessels which had lately chased her. The two 
frigates were supposed to be about equally matched ; but 
in half an hour the Giicrricrc was a helpless, mastless 
wreck, with 80 of her crew killed and wounded. The 
Constitution lost but 14 men, and was in good condition 
when the Giicrricrc surrendered. The British ship was 
so badly damaged that she was burned at once. 

368. Remaining Events of 1812. — In October, the sloop- 
of-war Wasp, Captain Jacob Jones, captured the British 

' The Constitution {'■^OX'X Ironsides") was considered a lucky sliip by 
sailors of the time. She was lucky, however, chiefly in having excellent 
officers, who chose good crews and handled her well. 



iSi2] SUCCESSES ON THE OCEAN 23^ 

brig- Frolic, off Cape Ilattcras. The two vessels were 
about equal in force, and the fi^htini^ on both sides was 
of the most desperate kind. When the Wasfs crew 
finally boarded the Frolic, they found on deck only the 
man at the ^\■heel, and three wounded officers. The two 
vessels were so badly damaged that they were both cap- 
tured by a British vessel, the Poicticrs, which overtook 
them the same day. In the same month, the United 
States, Captain Decatur (^ 342), met the British frigate 
MaccdouicDi, off the island of Maderia, on the African 
coast, and captured her after a battle of an hour and a 
half The Macedonian was terribly shattered, but Decatur 
succeeded in bringing his prize into New London. Late 
in December, the Constitution, now commanded by Cap- 
tain William Bainbridge, captured the Java, a British 
frigate of nearly equal force, off the eastern coast of Brazil. 
Again the British vessel was so badly damaged that it 
v.'as necessary to destroy her. 

369. The Naval Victories of 18 12 aroused an intense 
excitement in the United States. For twenty years Great 
Britain had been at war with almost every nation of 
Europe, and out of hundreds of battles between single 
ships of equal force she had lost but five vessels. It had 
come to be a common saying that, when France launched 
a vessel, she was only adding one to the British navy. 
In six months, however, the little American navy had 
captured five vessels, and had not lost a battle.^ Votes 
of thanks, swords, gold medals, and silver plate were 
given to the successful officers ; privateers (§ 240) put to 

• In most of these battles there was a slight superiority on the side of the 
American vessel. But the difference was not such as British officers had 
been used to care about ; and the remarkable loss of life on the British 
vessels showed that the accuracy of the American gunnery was the main 
reason for the victories. 



232 THE SECOND IV A R. WITH GREAT BRITAIN [1813 



sea from every important harbor ; and Congress hurried 
to vote more money for the navy. There was not much 
money in the treasury, however, and the ships were not 
built until after the war. 

370. Victories of 1813. — The year 18 13 opened with 
another victory. In February, the Hornet, Captain 
Lawrence, captured the British brig Peacock, off the coast 
of British Guiana, in South America. The Peacock was so 
badly cut up that she sank immediately after the surren- 
der, carrying down some of the men of both vessels. In 
September, the American brig Enterprise, Lieutenant 
Burrows, captured the British brig Boxer, off Portland, 
Maine. Both commanders were killed. 

371. The Blockade Great Britain had become so 

anxious about the naval war that a large part of her fleet 

was transferred to the American 
coast, WMth strict orders that two 
or three ships should always sail 
in company, and that no single 
battle should be risked unless 
the force on both sides should be 
exactly equal. Whenever an 
American war-vessel entered a 
harbor, a number of British ships 
American ounboat ^^ ^j-j^g sailed thither and watched 

the entrance closely. It was not possible for the larger 
American vessels to get to sea except by accident, and 
most of the fighting, during the rest of the war, was done 
by the smaller vessels. All along the coast, there were 
almost daily battles between the little American "gun- 
boats " (§ 352) and the boats of the British frigates, in 
which the most deperate courage was shown on both sides. 

372. Defeats of 1813. — The first American defeat came 
in June. Captain Lawrence, of the Hornet, had been 




if5.3l 



DEFEATS OF iSi 



^^^ 




James Lawrence. 



promoted to the command of a lar<^cr ship, the Chesa- 
peake. In this ship he sailed 
out from Boston harbor and 
engaged the British frigate 
Shannon, Captain Broke. 
The vessels were equally 
matched. But this time the 
adv'antage of discipline was 
on the side of the British ; 
Broke had carefully trained 
his men on the American 
system, while Lawrence had 
not had time to do so. 
Other things being equal, 
discipline decided the battle, 
and the Chesapeake swvYQnd&r&d. 
wounded, and died during the 
were, "Don't give up the ship.' 
as extravagant rejoicings in England as those of the 
previous year had done in the United States. In August, 
rejoicing was increased by the capture of the American 
brig Aj\q-!is, Captain Allen. The vessel had been cruising 
around Great Britain, capturing many merchantmen, and 
severely injuring British trade. The British brig Pelican 
was sent to search for her, and the two vessels met in the 
British Channel. The Pelican was slightly superior in 
force, but still more superior in discipline, and, after a 
battle of an hour, the Argus surrendered. 

373. Cruise of the Essex — In the spring of i8 1 3, Captain 
Porter, in the Essex, rounded Cape Horn, and sailed into 
the Pacific Ocean, where no American frigate had ever 
been. Here he gave protection to American vessels, 
captured British whalers, and broke up the British whaling 
trade in the Pacific. He armed several of his prizes, so 



Lawrence was mortally 

battle ; his last words 

The victory excited 



234 THE SECOND IV^IR IVITH GREAT BRITAIN [1815 

that he had at one time a considerable fleet, and even paid 
his men out of the money wliicli he captured. As all the 
countries around him were friendly to Great Britain, he 
seized the Marquesas Islands when he wished to refit his 
fleet, and then continued his cruise. I^arly the next year, 
the Essex entered the neutral harbor of Valparaiso ; and 
here she was blockaded by two British vessels, the PJuvbe 
and the Chcntl\ which had been sent to search for her. 
In March, while she was in a crippled condition from an 
accident, the two British vessels attacked her. They 
pelted her with shot from a distance, while she was 
unable to close with them ; and, after losing more than 
half her men, the Essex surrendered. This was the most 
savage and desperate struggle of the war.^ 

374. Events of 1814. — In addition to the capture of the 
Essex, there were three hard-fought battles in 18 14, in 
all of which the American vessels were successful. In 
April, the Peacock, the name given to a new American 
war- vessel, took the Eperviej- off the east coast of Florida. 
During the summer, the ]Vasp, Captain Blakely, took the 
British brigs Reindeer and Avon in the British Channel. 
The Wasp was probably lost soon afterward in a storm, 
for she was never heard of after the following month. 
For some time after her loss, there was not an American 
war-vessel on the ocean. 

375. Events of 1815. — In January, 18 15, the United 
States frigate President, one of the larger American 
vessels, was captured by a British fleet off Long Island, 
while trying to get to sea from New York. In February, 
the Constitution (§ 367), Captain Stewart, after a very 
skilfully fought battle by moonlight, captured two British 
vessels, the CyaJie ixwd the Levant, off Lisbon. In March, 

1 In this case, the Phabe alone was a heavier vessel than the Essex. 



I Si 5] PRIVATEERS 235 

the Hornet captured the British bric^ Penguin, of equal 
force, near the Cape of Good Hope; and, soon afterward, 
the Peaeock (§ 374) captured the weaker British brig 
Nautilus, near the island of Sumatra, in the Indian Ocean. 
This was the last capture of the war. Peace had already 
been made (§ 400), and the Najitihts was restored to the 
British.^ 

376. Privateers were very active throughout the war. 
Many of them were as large and powerful as sloops-of- 
war, and more troublesome to the enemy, for they were 
built for speed. Sometimes they sailed in fleets of five or 
more; and, even when alone, they did not hesitate to 
fight British war-vessels of equal force, and were often 
successful. One of the most famous was the CJiasseur, 
Captain Boyle, which for a long time in 18 13 kept the 
British Channel clear of merchantmen, while she was too 
fast and too well managed to be caught by heavy war- 
vessels. She captured 80 vessels, 50 of which were of 
equal or superior force to her own ; and her captain issued 
a burlesque proclamation, announcing that he had 
blockaded the British Islands, and forbidding all other 
nations to trade with them. In the following year, 18 14, 
the General Armstrong, Captain Reid, while lying in a 
neutral harbor of the Azores Islands, was attacked by a 
fleet of boats from three British frigates, and fought them 
for a whole night before the ship was abandoned. 

377. Naval Losses. — During the three years of the war, 
each nation lost about the same number of vessels, 1,700, 
including merchantment, privateers, and war-vessels ; but 
in value the British losses were somewhat heavier. No 

'There Iiad l)Len fifteen sliijj-duels during the war, of which the Ameri- 
cans lost but tliree, those of the Chesapeake (§ 372), tlie Argus (§ 372), and 
the Essex (§ 373). Such success gave the little American navy a world-wide 
reputation ; and other nations began, for the first time, to respect the United 
Stiites as a naval power. 



236 THE SECOND IV^R H^ITH GREAT BRITAIN | 1S13 

other nation had succeeded in inflicting equal losses on 
Great Britain. I*"or example, France, the princii)al enemy 
of Great Britain, had received about fifty times as much 
naval loss from the British as she had been able to inflict 
upon them. 

(5) Successes on the Lakes : iSij-t^. 

378. The Northern Lakes, Champlain, Ontario, and 
Erie, were of importance in the war. Lake Champlain 
was a part of the main route to Quebec and Montreal ; 
and Lakes Ontario and Erie were of great importance to 
the armies on their shores. The country around the 
lakes to the northwest of Lake Erie was imsettled and 
of comparatively little importance. 

379. The Lake Navies were at first very small. The 
Americans had but one small vessel on Lake Ontario. 
The British had half a dozen vessels on each of the two 
larger lakes, but none of them was of any great force. 
Both sides at once began purchasing and arming merchant- 
vessels ; but these were soon found to be almost useless 
for fighting purposes. The real contest was in building 
new war-vessels, and in this the Americans were success- 
ful, in spite of their disadvantages. Their side of the 
lakes was far more thinly settled than the Canadian side ; 
and they had to bring nails, ropes, guns, men, and pro- 
visions — everything except timber — from the Atlantic 
coast, over terribly bad roads. Nevertheless they won 
complete victories on Lakes Erie and Champlain, and 
held their own on Lake Ontario. 

380. Lake Ontario. — The operations on Lake Ontario, 
though very interesting to sailors, are of little interest in 
a history of the war. Commodore Chauncey commanded 
the American fleet, and Sir James Yeo the British ; and 
neither was willing to risk a general battle if the other had 



^8'^3] 



LAKE ERIE 



237 



the least superiority. They took turns in controUing the 
Like. If either was superior in force, the other remained 
in port until he had built a new and stronger vessel. 
Then he took possession of the lake, and the other retired 
to a safe harbor and began building. Most of the credit 
was gained by the ship-builders on both sides, particularly 
by Henry Eckford, the American builder. When the 
war began, i6-gun vessels were the strongest on either 
side; when it ended, both sides Avere busily building 
I i2-gun ships, for crews of 1,000 men each.' 

381. Lake Erie.- — In the winter of 18 12-13, while 
Proctor was superior to the Americans on land (§ 360), 
Captain Oliver H. Perry 
was sent to Lake P^rie to 
form a navy. He worked 
with the greatest energy, 
and soon had five new 
vessels built at Erie- 
Two of his fleet, the 
Laivrciicc and the Niag- 
ara, were fairly large 
vessels ; all the rest were 
small. Perry found the 
British fleet, under Cap- 
tain Barclay, off San- 
dusky, and gave battle, 
September 10, 18 13. 
His own ship, the Laiv- 
rcnce, at first bore the whole fire of the British fleet, and 
was completely disabled. Her sides were beaten in, and 
only fourteen of her whole crew were fit for duty. Perry 




Oliver H. Perry. 



1 The Ontario navies were used for transporting armies from one part of 
tlie lake shore to another. There were also many minor boat-fights ; and 
on one occasion a gt'ncr;il battle ne:ir!\' tf)ok place. 



238 THE SECOND IV A R IVITH GREAT BRITAIN [181 4 



then leaped into a rovvboat, rowed to the Niagara, and 
in her attacked the exhausted British fleet. The conflict 
was short: the Niagara burst through the British hne, 
firing right and left as she went, and in fifl:een minutes the 
whole British fleet surrendered. The Americans then 
controlled the lake ; the fleet carried the army over to 
Canada; and the battle of the Thames followed, and 
ended the war in the West.' 

382. Lake Champlain. — During the summer of 18 14, 
while there was peace for a time in Europe, Great 

Britain sent fresh troops to 
Canada, for the purpose of 
invading northern New 
York, as Burgoyne had done 
(§ 218). Lake Champlain 
was a part of their route ; 
and on the lake there was 
an American fleet under 
Commodore Macdonough. 
The British fleet was com- 
manded by Commodore 
Downie. The naval battle, 
which was to decide the fate 
of the expedition, took place 
September 1 1, 18 14, in the harbor of Plattsburgh. The 
British fleet attacked at daybreak; and, after a desperate 
battle of over two hours, their four larger vessels surren- 
dered and the others fled. The British army at once 
retreated, and the expedition w\as given up.'^ 

' Perry's fleet, two large uikI seven small vessels, carried 54 guns and 416 
men, and lost 123 men. Barclay's fleet, two large and four small vessels, 
carried 63 guns and 440 men, and lost 135 men. Perry's official despatch, 
announcing the victory, read : "We have met the enemy and they are ours: 
two ships, t\v(j brigs, one schooner, and one sloop." 

2 Macdonough's fleet of four war-vessels and ten gunboats carried 86 guns 




Thomas Macdonough. 



[8 1 4] THE ATLANTIC COAST 239 



(6) Jh'sasfcrs on the Atlantic Coast. 

383. The Blockade of the Atlantic coast was enforced 
by British vessels from the beginning of the year 18 13. 
At first they were inclined to spare the coast of New 
England, which they supposed to be friendly to Great 
Britain; but this policy was soon abandoned, and the 
whole coast was treated alike. Groups of war-vessels 
were stationed before each of the principal seaports, and 
others were continually in motion along the coast, from 
Halifax on the north to the West Indies, l^arly in 18 13, 
they took possession of the mouth of Chesapeake Bay as 
a naval station, and the American Government ordered 
all the lights to be put out in the neighboring light- 
houses. 

384. The Atlantic Coast was thus kept in a state of 
almost constant alarm, for the British vessels were con- 
tinualh' landing men at exposed points to burn, plunder, 
and destroy. Private property was seized in great quan- 
tities everywhere, and the war seemed to the Americans 
to be mainly one of general robbery by the British navy. 
In 18 1 3, the defenceless towns of Lewes, Havre de Grace, 
and Hampton (near Fortress Monroe) were bombarded, 
and Stonington, Conn., in 1814; and a number of smaller 
towns were burned or plundered. Attacks on New York 
and other larger cities were prevented only by fear of tor- 
pedoes, by means of which the Americans had nearly 
blown up one or two British ships which ventured too 
near New York. Fulton (§ 337) had also built at New 

and 882 men, and lost about 200 men. Downie's fleet of four war-vessels 
and twelve gunboats carried 92 guns and 937 men, and lost about 300 men. 
Macdonough's despatch, announcing the victory, read : "The Almighty has 
been pleased to grant us a signal victory on Lake Champlain, in the capture 
of one frigate, one brig, and two sloops-of-war of the enemy." 



240 THE SECOND IVAR IVITH GREAT BRITAIN [1814 



York a steam floating battery, the first of its kind, and the 
reports in regard to it helped to keep the British at a safe 
distance. 

385. Maine, as far as the Penobscot River, was seized 
by the British in 18 14 and held until the end of the war. 
This seizure excited great alarm in the rest of New Eng- 
land, for it was believed that the enemy intended to 
advance along the coast in the following year. 

386. Washington, — In August, 18 14, a new British fleet 
brought over an army of 5,000 men to the Chesapeake. 

They landed in Maryland, where 
the Patuxent River empties into 
the bay, and set out on a march 
of forty miles northwest to Wash- 
ington. The American Govern- 
ment had utterly neglected to 
prepare for the defence of the 
capital, and it was now too late 
to do so. A feeble attempt to 
resist was made at Bladensburgh, 
a village near the capital, but it 
was overpowered at once. The 
British then entered Washington 
and burned the Capitol and other 
public buildings.^ 

387. Baltimore. — After attacking Washington, the Brit- 
ish made a hasty retreat across the country, and embarked 
again on their fleet. * They then sailed up the bay to 
attack Baltimore. But that city made a stout and success- 
ful resistance. The ships were repulsed in an attack on 




SCALE OF MILES 



Attack on Washington— Course 
OF THE British. 



1 This act of the Britisli lias been excused by tlie Ijurning of a public build- 
ing in York, Canada, after its capture by the Americans (§ 362). But that 
act was not perpetrated by government order, as was the destruction of 
Wasliington. 



i8i4] THF. H^RT/'ORD CONI^HNTION 241 

Fovt McHcnr}', and the army withdrew, after an unsuc- 
cessful battle at North Point, below the city, without 
accomplishing anything. Its commander, General Ross, 
was killed.^ 

388. Admiral Cockburn, the British naval commander, 
then changed his headquarters to Cumberland Island, on 
the Georgia coast. From this point, until peace was 
made, he carried on a warfare of robbery, and then he 
retired from American soil with his plunder. Before this 
took place, a large part of his land force took part in the 
expedition to New Orleans and shared in its complete 
defeat (§ 399). 

(7) Dissatisfaction at Home. 

389. The New England States had never been satisfied 
with the war (§ 355); and their dissatisfaction was in- 
creased by its early fiiilures. The American Govern- 
ment's management had not been very successful. At 
first, its commanders were not wisely selected. Its 
treasury was badly managed, so that it had little money 
and could with difficulty borrow, even at high interest. 
The national government seemed to be unable to check 
the British attacks on the coast; and the New England 
States came to believe that it did not care to afford them 
any protection. Finally, late in 18 14, they sent delegates 
to meet at Hartford, in Connecticut, and consider the 
state of affairs. 

390.* The Hartford Convention. — The Hartford Conven- 
tion was composed of Federalist delegates from the States 
of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut, with 
others chosen by local conventions in New Hampshire 

' During the night attack on l^'ort McHenr}-, the national song, the 
"Star-Spangled Banner," was written by Francis S. Key, who had visited 
the British fleet, to obtain the release of some prisoners, and had been 
detained there. 



2 42 THE SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN [i^i4 

and Vermont. Its meetings were held in secret, and "it 
was supposed to be plotting to break up the Union and 
form a separate government in New England. It made 
a public report, in which it urged that the States be given 
the right to defend themselves without waiting for the 
Federal Government, and that certain portions of the 
Federal taxes collected in the States be assigned to the 
States for that purpose ; and recommending such amend- 
ment of the Constitution as would restrict the right of 
Congress to lay embargoes or declare war. Commissioners 
from Massachusetts and Connecticut were sent to Wash- 
ington to urge the adoption of the recommendations by 
Congress; but before they arrived the war had ended, and 
their mission came to nothing. The wide-spread impres- 
sion that the proceedings of the Hartford Convention were 
of a treasonable nature bred great indignation against it, 
and helped much to put an end to the Federalist party 
soon after the war. 

(8) Successes in the N'orth : iSi^. 

391. The Reorganization of the American army in 
western New York was successfully effected during the 
winter of 1813-14 (§ 364). The excellent results of the 
work w^ere seen in July, 18 14, when the country was sur- 
prised and delighted by several victories won by the same 
army which had before been so unsuccessful. These 
victories, to be sure, came too late to have much effect on 
the war ; but they showed that the former defeats were due 
to the generals, not to the men. They were as follows: 

392. Chippewa and Lundy's Lane. — Early in July, the 
army, under command of Brown, Scott, and Ripley, 
crossed the Niagara River from I^uffalo, and captured 
YoxX. Erie. Turning to the north, toward Eake Ontario, 



i8i3] 



THE IV^m IN THF. SOU T HUT. ST 



^43 



K r o 




it met the enemy (July 5), stronL,rly intrenched behind a 
little stream called the Chippewa. 
The American troops were now 
well trained and well handled, 
and drove the British out of their 
intrenchments and up to the 
shore of Lake Ontario. The 
British, however, receiv^ed rein- 
forcements, and turned back to 
"meet the pursuing Americans. 
The two armies met (July 25) at 
a place called Lundy's Lane, or 

B-J , -\T. IT 1 I SCAUE OF MILES 

rid"'ewater, near JNiasfara rails. ^ — -^ 

fc" ' C> U 5 15 25 

The battle, which began at sun- Niagara frontier. 

set and lasted until midnight, was one of the most stub- 
bornly contested of the war. The British lost their com- 
mander, who was wounded and captured, and were finally 
driven some distance from the field. But the Americans 
had also lost heavily ; Brown and Scott were wounded ; 
and Ripley the next morning ordered his army to retreat 
to F'ort Erie. 

393. Fort Erie was besieged in September by a superior 
force of the enemy; but Brown, who had recovered, 
reassumed command of the army, and drove his besiegers 
back again beyond the Chippewa. Before the winter set 
in, the Americans retired to their own side of the Niagara 
River, and the treaty of peace soon put a stop to further 
hostilities. 



(9) S71CCCSSCS in the Southivcst : iSij-i^. 

394. The Southwest Territory, now the States of Alabama 
and Mississippi, was at this time almost entirely an Indian 
country. Its only important white settlements were 
Natchez and Mobile. Mobile was claimed by Spain as 



2 44 THE SECOND IV A R IVITH GREAT BRTTAIN [1S14 

within her territory of Florida; but the Americans had 
lately taken possession of it by force. North of this terri- 
tory was the State of Tennessee, and southwest of it was 
New Orleans, the principal city of Louisiana. The Creeks 
were the principal Indian tribe of the southwest, and from 
the outbreak of the war they took sides against the 
United States. 

395. Fort Mims. — Early in 18 13, the Tennessee militia 
were called out to keep the Indians quiet; and, in order 
to watch the Indian country from the west side, they 
marched to Natchez under General Andrew Jackson 
(§ 438). But the government believed that the Indians 
intended to remain at peace, and the Tennessee troops 
were dismissed, to the great surprise and anger of Jack- 
son. In August, 18 1 3, a shocking event showed that the 
Creeks did not intend to remain at peace. About 500 
men, women, and children had taken refuge in Fort Mims, 
near Mobile; and the Creeks surprised the fort, captured 
it, and massacred nearly all who were in it. 

396. The Creek War. — The Tennessee troops were again 
called out, under command of Jackson. He marched into 
the Indian country, drove the Creeks from one stronghold 
to another, and finally broke their power in a great battle 
at Tohopeka, or Horseshoe Bend, on the Tallapoosa 
River, in eastern Alabama. Eight hundred of the Creeks 
were killed, and the tribe gave up most of its territory. 
This series of victories made Jackson the leading general 
of the southwest. 

397. Peace in Europe had been attained by Great Britain 
in 1814. All the other leading nations of Europe united 
with her in compelling Napoleon to leave France and re- 
tire to the island of Elba, in the Mediterranean. Great 
Britian Avas thus left at liberty to direct all her energies 
toward the United States. One force went to Canada 



I'^'Sl 



THH BATTLE OF NHIV ORUzANS 



245 






(^ 382); aiiotlicr was sent to attack Washington (v:;' 3S6) ; 
but tlic main body was sent on a great expedition against 
New Orleans, with the design of retaining that city and 
Louisiana when peace should be made. 

398. The Defence of the Southwest was entrusted to 
Jackson, who worked with extraordinary energy to make 
it secure. He raised 



volunteers in Ten- 
nessee, seizx'd the 
Spanish town of 
Pensacola, which 
had given assist- 
ance to the British, 
and then hurried to 
fortify New Orleans 
before the arrival 
of the British. A 
few miles below the 
city, where there 
was onl}' a narrow 
passage between an 
impassable swamp 
and the Mississippi 




10 20 io 60 

Expedition against Nf.w Orleans. 



River, he put up a line of intrenchments, and held his 
ground while the riflemen of Kentucky and Tennessee 
luirried down the river to his assistance. 

399. The Battle of New Orleans. — The British expedi- 
tion, under Sir Edward Pakenham, entered Lake Borgne 
in December, captured the American gunboats, and 
landed below Jackson's works. The British numbered 
12,000, and Jackson's army 6,000; but the British were 
trained and veteran troops, while the Americans were 
almost as undisciplined as those at Bunker Hill. For a 
few weeks there were night-attacks and skirmishes, in 



2 4<J THE SHCOND IV /I R WITH GREAT BRITAIN \j^iS 

which neither party had the advantage. January 8, 1815, 
the whole British Hne moved forward, in a dense fog, to 
attack Jackson's works. Again, as at Bunker Hill, there 
was a steady silence in the fortifications until the British 
were so near that the fire of the riflemen was murderous. 
Whole platoons of the attacking troops fell in their tracks, 
as if levelled by one discharge. Within twenty-five min- 
utes the whole British line was in full retreat, having lost 
its commander and 2,500 men. The American loss was 
8 killed and 13 wounded. A few days afterward, the 
British retired to their ships, and set sail for the West 
Indies. Peace had already been made, though neither 
army knew it. 

(10) Peace. 

400. Peace Negotiations had been going on almost from 
the beginning of the war. In 18 13, Russia had offered to 
mediate between Great Britain and the United States ; that 
is, to assist, as a friend of both parties, in arranging terms 
of peace; but Great Britain declined the offer. Soon after. 
Great Britain expressed its willingness to deal directly 
with the United States ; and President Madison appointed 
five commissioners to arrange a treaty. The}'' met the 
British commissioners at Ghent, a city of Belgium, and, 
after long negotiations, agreed upon a treaty of peace late 
in 1 8 14 (December 24). This was ratified by the United 
States and put a stop to the w^ar. Peace had thus been 
agreed upon before the battle of New Orleans was fought, 
but there w^as then no ocean telegraph to bring the news 
in time to avoid the battle. 

401. The Treaty of Peace settled nothing as to the 
Orders in Council or the impressment of seamen, which 
had caused the war (§ 344). These matters, however. 



i8i5] RHSUI.TS OF THB IVAR 247 

were now of very little importance. Napoleon had been 
conquered; and the general peace in the world, and the 
ability shown by the American navy during the war, 
made it very unlikely that any such difficulties would 
occur again. After the war, the growing power of the 
United States made these old c^uestions of still less im- 
portance; and Great Britain never again attempted to 
enforce her Orders in Council, or her asserted rights of 
search and impressment.^ 

402. The News travelled slowly in 181 5. Jackson's 
victory of January 8 was not known at Washington until 
February 4, when it made the people wild with joy. The 
news of the treaty of peace reached New York a week 
later, and was received with equal pleasure. It was wel- 
come to every one, for the affairs of the country were in 
very bad condition. There was little commerce, or busi- 
ness of any kind; and poverty and distress were general. 
Farmers had not been able to sell their crops ; the price 
of all things had risen ; and there was little money in the 
country with which to buy. All classes hoped and 
believed that prosperity would return with peace. 

403. Results of the War. — The war had been a terrible 
experience for the American people : it had brought 
poverty, distress, defeats as well as victories, and much 
dissension. But it taught the people the importance of a 
strong national government. They saw that their defeats 
hadcome from the weakness of the Federal Government, 
and that it was the success of the Federal Government's 
navy which had for the first time gained them respect 
abroad. The Republicans had wished to keep the Federal 

' In 1861, Great Britain nearly went to war with the United States 
because an American naval ofificer exercised the old right of search (§ 662). 
In this case, the United States Government maintained the principle of the 
War of 18 1 2. and refused to support the action of the naval officer. 



248 THE SECOND IV A R IVITH GREAT BRITAIN [^^16 

Government relatively weak, that the States niig^ht not be 
forced to do anythinj^ which they should not wish to do; 
but this looked very differently when the Republicans 
began to fear that the New England States would attempt 
to leave the Union. From this time, the Federal Govern- 
ment was as dear to the Republicans as it had been to the 
Federalists ; so that we may fairly say that it was the war 
of 1 8 12 which gave the nation respect at home as well as 
abroad (§ 328). 

404. The Barbary States (§ 341), during the war, had 
not only allowed the British to capture American vessels 
in their harbors, but had even made some captures them- 
selves. In 1 81 5, Decatur, with a fleet, was sent to 
demand satisfaction from Algiers. Its frightened ruler 
came on board Decatur's ship and signed a treaty by 
which he promised to pay for the American ships illegally 
captured, to make no more captures, and to ask no more 
money for keeping the peace. Decatur's fleet then set 
sail for Tripoli and Tunis, and forced them to agree to 
the same terms. There has been no further trouble with 
the Barbary pirates. 

405. Settlements were now increasing throughout the 
West. The defeat of the Creeks (§ 396) had opened up 
the southwest to settlement, and the future States of 
Alabama and Mississippi were already marked out. In 
the northwest, two States, Ohio and Indiana, had been 
formed, and the two future States of Illinois and Michigan 
were marked out in the form of Territories. Louisiana 
was admitted as a State in 18 12, and Indiana in 18 16. 
The settlement of the whole West was being greatly 
hastened by the invention of the steamboat, which had 
now begun to be common on Western rivers. When the 
war broke out, steamboats \yere running on the Hudson, 
Raritan, Delaware, Ohio, and St. Lawrence rivers, and 



i8i6] COMMFRCF. AND FINANCF 249 

on Lake Chaniplain ; and a steam ferryboat had begun 
to take the place of the cUnnsy scows which ran between 
New York and Brooklyn. In 1 8 16, a steamboat 
ascended the Mississippi and Ohio to Louisville. The 
war had also increased the settlement of western New 
York, and Buffalo and Rochester soon became important 
places. 

406. Commerce and Business revived as soon as the 
war ended. Farmers found a market for their crops ; 
wealth increased apace ; every interest prospered except 
manufactures. Foreign-manufactured goods had been 
shut out of the country during the war; and many Ameri- 
cans had spent much money in building factories. When 
peace was made, English factories sent their goods to the 
United States, and sold them cheaper than the American 
factories could afford to. The American owners were 
thus compelled either to close their factories, or to sell 
their goods at a loss. Their difficulties had a great influ- 
ence on public affairs for many years to come, for the 
American manufacturers were urgent that the tariff of 
duties on imports should be made high enough to shut 
out the foreign goods (§ 425). 

407. The National Debt of the United States was now 
about $127,000,000, of which about $80,000,000 was 
the cost of the war. But the government was no longer 
pressed for money. From 18 14 to 181 5, exports rose 
from $7,000,000 to $53,000,000; imports, from $13,- 
000,000 to $113,000,000; and duties paid to the govern- 
ment, from $4,000,000 to $38,000,000. 

408. The National Bank, which had been chartered in 
1791 (§ 300)' came to an end in 181 1. In 1816, Con- 
gress chartered a new National Bank, on about the same 
plan, for twenty years. The public money was to be 
deposited in it, or in its branches, unless the Secretary of 



250 THE SFCOND IV^R IVITH GREAT RRTTAIN [1S16 

the Treasury sliould at any time order it to be deposited 
elsewhere (§ 469). 

409. Presidential Election. — It was in this period that 
the FederaHst party ceased to be a factor of importance 
in national politics. The party had performed an in- 
estimable service in the organization of the government 
under Washington ; but its opposition to the War of 
1 8 12 had alienated young men, and cost it popular sup- 
port. There was but one party left, the Republican, or, 
as it was coming to be called, the Democratic party. 
The Republicans, accordingly, had little opposition in 
electing a successor to Madison. James Monroe, of 
Virginia, was chosen President (18 16). He represented 
still more than Madison the new feelings which had 
grown out of the Avar, and the few remaining Federal- 
ists soon came to like him. Daniel D. Tompkins, of 
New York, was chosen Vice-President. He had been 
Governor of his State during the war, and had supported 
the Federal Government vigorously.^ 

410. The Leading Events of Madison's administrations 

were as follows: 

1809-13 : Madison's First Term § 348 

1 8 10: End of the Non-Intercourse Law. . . . 349 

181 1 : The President and Li/lle Belt 349 

Battle of Tij)pecanoe (November 7) . . 350 

181 2 : Admission of Louisiana 405 

War declared against Great Britain 

(June 18) 351 

The Essex takes the Alert (August 13). 366 

Hull's surrender (August 16) 356 

The Constitution takes the Guerriere 

(Aug. 19) 367 

Battle of Queenstown Heights (Octo- 
ber 13) 357 

' The Federalist candidates were Rufus King, of New York, for Presi- 
dent, and various others for Vice-President. They received 34 out of 221 
electoral votes. 



8 14 J LEADING EVENTS, iSog-,S/6 251 

1812: 'I'hc jr</j/) takes the //W/c (October 18) § ^US 

The Uniied S/a/esXz\^c^i\\it Jllaccdoiiid/i 

(Oct. 25) 3^'S 

The Cofisiitu/ion takes the //r,/ (De- 
cember 29) Z^^''^ 

1813 : Massacre at the Riii^iu River (Jan- 
uary 22) 359 

The Hornet takes the Peacock ( l'"eb- 

ruary 24) • 37° 

Cruise of the Essex in the Pacilie. ... 373 

1813 : Capture of York (/Vpril 27) 362 

Siege of Fort Meigs (]May i) 360 

The Chesapeake taken by the Shaiuion 

(June i) 372 

Siege of Fort Stephenson (August 2) . 361 

The Argus taken by the Pelican 

(August 14) 372 

Massacre at Fort Mims (August 30).. 395 

The Enterprise takes the Boxer (Sep- 
tember 5) 370 

Perry's victory on Lake I^rie (Septem- 
ber 10) 381 

Battle of the Thames (October 5) . . . . 361 

1814: Battle of Tohopeka, Ala. (?^Iarch 27) 396 

The Essex taken by the Phabe antl 

the Cherub (March 28) 373 

The Peacock takes the Epervier (April 

29) 374 

The Wasp takes the Reindeer (J une 28 ). 374 

Capture of Fort Frie (July 3) 392 

Battle of Chippewa (July 5) 392 

Battle of Lundy's Lane (July 25). . . . 392 
Burning of Washington (Augu.^t 24). 386 
The Wasp takes the Avon (September i ) 374 
Macdonough's victory on Lake Cham- 
plain (September 11) 382 

Attack on Fort INIcHenrv (September 

13) ■ Z^l 

Battle of Fort Frie (September 17). . . 393 

Jackson takes Pensacola (November 7) 398 

Hartford Convention (December 15).. 390 

Treaty of peace signed (December 24) 400 



2 5^ THE SECOND IV A R IVITH GREAT BRITAIN fiSi6 

1815 : Battle of New Orleans ()anuaiy 8). . . i^ 399 
The Prcsidcnl taken by a JJritish Iket 

(Jan- 15).. 375 

The Consiilution takes the Cvane and 

the Levant (February 20) 375 

The Hornet takes the Penguin (]\lavch 

23) 375 

Decatur brings Algiers to terms (June 

28) 404 

The PeacocJi takes the Xaiililus (|une 

30) 375 

l8i6': National Bank chartered 408 

Admission of Indiana. 405 

Topics for Further Study, 

1. Causes of the war of 18 12. 

2. The Henry documents. 

3. The Hartford Convention. 

4. National receipts and expenditures under Jefferson and 
Madison. 

5. Early settlement of Indiana. 

6. The Cumberland road. 



Supplementary Reading. 

Sources. — MacDonald's Select Documents gives the Non- 
Intercourse Act (No. 28), Madison's war message (No, 29) and 
the declaration of war (No. 30), the treaty of Ghent (No. 31), 
the recommendations of the Hartford Convention (No, 32), and 
the National Bank Act (No. t,i). Niles' s Weeldy Register, 
begun in 1811, contains a great amount of valuable material, 
but ill arranged and difficult to use. 

Narrative Accounts. — The best general account, to 1817, 
is still Henry Adams's History of tlie United States. The 
j\Iemoirs of John Quincy Adams now become of importance, as 
do also, among biographies, INIorse's John Quiticy Adams, 
Schurz's Heniy Clay, Sumner's Jackson, Oilman's Monroe, and 
INIcLaughlin's Lewis Cass. Military events are treated in 
Lossing's Pictorial Field-Book 0/ ihe War of 18 1 2 and Inger- 
soll's Historical Sketch of the Second War. For naval events, 
see especially Maclay's History of the United States Navy, 



SUrri.F.MBN T.-IR Y RH/IDING 253 

Roosevelt's N'aihil War of 1S12, and Cui^L^cshaH's Historv 0/ 
American Privateers. (Ju the opposition to the war in New 
England, and the Hartford Convention, see Lodge's George 
Cabot, chaps. 11-13; Barry's Massachusetts, vol. iii., pp. 407- 
422; i^yixxizy' '^ Josiah Quincv; Lodge's Webster; Curtis's Webster; 
and Ormsby's History of the Whig Party. Dunn's Indiana 
treats the history of that State with particular reference to the 
slavery struggle. 

Illustrative Literature. — Irving's Astoria and Captain 
Bomieville; D. G. Mitchell's Doctor fohns ; Holmes's Old 
Ironsides, 



CHAPTER XIV 



SOCIAL AND POLITICAL READJUSTMENT 



(1) Monroe's Administrations: 1817-2S 

James Monroe, Va., President. Daniel D. Tompkins, N. Y., Vice-President. 

411. The New President. — President Monroe was not a 
very able party leader, but he was probably for that 

reason a better President 
for his time. He had 
been a Revolutionary of- 
ficer, Governor of Vir- 
ginia, the Minister to 
P^rance when Louisiana 
was bought (§ 334), and 
Secretary of War-; so 
that he was not an un- 
known man. But the 
new feeling of national 
strength made it good 
that the people should 
cease to do this or that 
simply because they 
loved and admired Ham- 
ilton or Jefferson or any 
other party leader, and 

James Monroe. sllOuld leam tO SUppOrt Or 

oppose measures according to their probable influence on 
the welfare of the country. Monroe was a safe President, 

254 




I St 7] NEIV LEADERS 255 

who was not likely to do rash or foolish thini;-s; but 
people did not admire him or dislike him enoui;h to have 
their attention called off from public affairs. 

412. The New Leaders. — At the same time, new men 
were coming into public life. Monroe's Cabinet had 
several very able members. John Quincy Adams, the 
Secretary of State, the son of John Adams, of Massa- 
chusetts, was one of the ablest. Another was John C. 
Calhoun, of South Carolina, the Secretary of War, one 
of the strongest men in argument that the country has 
yet produced. Another was William H. Crawford, of 
Georgia, the Secretary of the Treasury, a hard worker, 
and much liked at the South. There were other strong 
men outside of the Cabinet. Henry Clay, of Kentucky, 
the leader of the House of Representatives, was a man 
of great eloquence, ingenious in contriving ways to help 
Congress out of difficulties, and a man whom other men 
were apt to like very strongly; and he was popular, 
further, because he had done a great deal to rouse the 
people to resist Great Britain in the War of 1812. Daniel 
Webster, at first of New Hampshire and afterwards of 
Massachusetts, had already shown that he was even a 
more eloquent speaker than Clay. Finally, outside of both 
Cabinet and Congress, was Andrew Jackson, of Ten- 
nessee, who had won the battle of New Orleans (§ 399). 
His case was different from that of all the others. They 
had risen in public life by education or by showing that 
they had some form of ability peculiar to themselves. 
He had risen by showing that he was prompt and vigor- 
ous in dealing with unexpected difficulties, and by the 
belief of a great many that he really cared more for the 
interests of the people than did other leaders of his time. 
413. Era of Good Feeling. — During Monroe's first term, 
the Federalist party entirely disappeared from politics. 



256 SOCIAL AND POLITICAL READJUSTMENT [1.S21 

Its members either ceased voting or called themselves 
Republicans. This period is therefore often called "the 
era of good feeling. ' ' At the end of Monroe's first term, 
the Republicans were successful in the Presidential elec- 
tion of 1820 without any opposition, and Monroe and 
Tompkins were re-elected President and Vice-President. 
But the vote was not quite unanimous. One electoral 
vote was cast against Monroe, and fourteen against 
Tompkins, so that they should not have the unanimous 
vote which had been given to no candidate except Wash- 
ington. 

414. Florida was added to the territory of the United 
States d-uring this administration. It had been a Spanish 
possession, and its governors had given the United States 
much trouble during the war (§ 398). After the close of 
the war, the Seminole Indians of Florida, aided by the 
Spaniards, kept up hostilities against the whites of Georgia 
and Alabama. Jackson, who still commanded there, 
soon lost all patience, and marched his army into P'lorida. 
He seized Pensacola, and hanged two British subjects, 
Arbuthnot and Ambrister, whom he accused of leading 
the Seminoles. Spain protested, and Pensacola was given 
back. But Florida was so evidently at the mercy of the 
United States that Spain agreed to sell it for about 
$5,000,000. The treaty was made in 18 19, though it 
was not ratified until 1821. 

415. Negro Slavery. — The admission of Missouri brought 
about the first thoroughly angry discussion of slavery. 
Negro slavery had in 1820 almost entirely disappeared 
from the old States north of Virginia (§ 188); and it had 
been forbidden from the beginning in the new States 
north of the Ohio (§ 274). In the southern States, how- 
ever, it showed no signs of disappearance, for the cotton- 
gin had made it profitable (§ 316); and people in general 



i82i| THE SLAyERY {QUESTION 257 

had not yet come to see how much it was really injuriiiL;" 
the industry of the country. The first settlers in Ken- 
tucky, Tennessee, Alabama, and Mississippi naturally 
took their slaves with them; and when these States were 
admitted, they came in as slave States. Slavery existed 
in the Territory of Louisiana when it was bought from 
France ; Congress did nothing to stop it ; and thus Louisi- 
ana became a slave State. The number of slaves in the 
rest of the Territory grew steadily; and when Missouri 
applied for admission, it was as a slave State. 

416. Two Sections had thus been formed in the United 
States, the North forbidding slavery, the South encourag- 
ing it. This one difference not only changed the inner 
life of the two sections, but made them opponents of one 
another. Many of the laws passed by Congress for the 
whole country Avould have different effects in the different 
sections; in consequence, one section or the other was 
likely to be aggrieved, no matter what shape the law 
finally took. As each section felt that it had peculiar 
needs of its own, each naturally sought to control Con- 
gress. Most new settlers preferred the free States, where 
work would not be dishonorable ; and so the free States 
increased in population more rapidly than the slave States. 
The States are represented in the House of Representa- 
tives according to their population (i$ 281), so that the 
growing free States would always control that part of 
Congress. In the Senate, each State has an equal \'ote ; 
and a new slave .State, even with a smaller population, 
would have as large a vote as a free State. The only 
opportunit}' of the South, then, was in the Senate, and 
it took care to balance each new free State by bringing 
in a new slave State at about the same time. 

417. The Case of Missouri. — There was no difficulty as 
long as the new States were formed from the Territory 



258 SOCIAL AND POLITICAL READJUSTMEhIT [1821 

east of the Mississippi, where slavery had already been 
either forbidden or permitted. When, however, Missouri 
applied for admission as a slave State, there was difficulty 
at once, for each section wanted the new State. It was 
necessary that both Houses of Congress should agree to 
admit it. The House of Representatives, which the free 
States controlled, declared that Missouri should not come 
in as a slave State; that it had never been intended, when 
the Constitution was framed, that slavery should spread 
beyond the Mississippi, or new slave States be admitted; 
and that Congress ought now to refuse to admit Missouri 
save as a free State. In the Senate, where the South was 
in control, it was insisted that the Constitution had left 
the control of slavery to the States ; that Missouri had 
chosen to be a slave State; and that, in consequence. 
Congress had no right to interfere in the matter. For 
a time nothing could be done, the two Houses being 
unable to agree, and the feeling between the represen- 
tatives of the two sections becoming constantly more 
bitter. 

418. The Missouri Compromise. — After two years of 
heated discussion, the difficulty was settled, in 1820, by 
the Missouri Compromise. Missouri was to be admitted 
as a slave State, thus granting the demand of the South; 
but slavery was to be forever prohibited in the remainder 
of the Louisiana purchase, north of the southern boundary 
of Missouri (latitude 36° 30'). On the other hand. 
Maine, which had applied for admission at about the same 
time, was admitted as a free State. Nothing was said of 
the territory south of the parallel 2)^° 30', but it was 
understood that slavery would continue to exist there, as 
heretofore. Under this compromise, Missouri was ad- 
mitted to the Union in 1821. The Missouri Compromise 
was mainly the A\ork of Cla)-, and afforded a practical 



1824] THf- MONROE DOCTRINE 259 

settlement of the territorial side of the slavery question 
for about thirt}' }-ears. 

419.* Other New States. — Three other new States were 
admitted duriny; Monroe's administrations. Mississippi 
(1817) was a part of the territory oris^inally claimed by 
Georgia, as was also Alabama (18 19). Both of these 
were slave States. Illinois (18 18), the third State formed 
from the Northwest Territor\% came into the Union sub- 
ject to the provisions of the Ordinance of 1787, without 
slavery. The number of States was now twenty-four. 

420. The Monroe. Doctrine. — The former Spanish colonies 
in Mexico and South America had rebelled and become 
independent. Spain was too weak to make them submit, 
but there were strong suspicions that some of the other 
governments of Europe meant to help Spain. President 
Monroe therefore declared in a message to Congress, 
in 1823, that the United States had no intention of inter- 
fering with any \\ar in Europe, or \\ith an}' recognized 
European colonies in America; but that no more Euro- 
pean colonies should be planted in America; and that 
the United States would not view with indifference "an 
attempt by any nation of Europe to reduce an independ- 
ent nation of North or South America to the condition of 
a colony. " This very important principle is called the 
Monroe Doctrine, and has always since been the declared 
policy of the United States in foreign affairs. 

421. La Fayette (^ 214) was invited to pay a visit to 
the United States in 1824. He came, an old man of 68, 
to a country that had changed wonderfully since he had 
seen it in his youth. He had left it a weak, thinly settled 
fringe of settlements along the Atlantic coast, too poor 
to pay its troops. He found it a nation with a population 
of 9,633,822 in 1820 (^ 353), with States beyond the 
Mississippi, with a powerful and successful navy, and the 



2 6o SOCIAL AND POLITICAL READJUSTMENT [1824 

prospect of a still more wonderful future. In his }-outh 
he might have visited all the States without leaving salt 
water; now he had to travel more than a thousand miles 
away from the Atlantic to reach some of them. In France, 
he had just been treated disrespectfully and unkindly by 
his own government; and Congress and the country made 
it a point to show how grateful the American people were 
to him. As he passed up New York Bay, Fort La Fayette 
saluted him; processions, parades, and greetings of every 
sort met him wherever he went; and the wliole country 
seemed to stop its work for the moment to give him a 
welcome such as he had never expected. After a visit of 
more than a year as the guest of the nation, he was sent 
back to France in a United States frigate, the Braiidyiviiic, 
which had just been launched and named in his honor, 
and with a present from the United States of two hundred 
thousand dollars in money, and a township of public 
lands. 

422. The Condition of the Country was not greatly 
changed, though it was just on the \-erge of great changes. 
One important invention had been introduced from 
England: lighting by gas was begun in 1822, and soon 
became common. The use of steamboats had made 
river-navigation as easy as at present, but trax'clling by 
land was as difficult as ever. Little could be done to 
improve it until steam-railroads were introduced (§ 443) ; 
but in the mean time Congress and the States voted money 
freely for the improvement of roads and the construction 
of canals. New York led the way in this work. 

423. The National Road. — One of the difficulties which 
had done most to keep the country poor was the exceed- 
ing badness of the roads. Most of them were made by 
scraping up a little dirt from the sides of the road into the 
middle of it; in dry weather they were dusty, and in wet 



1 8 2^] r.-IRll-F DISCUSSION 261 

weather they became mutl-holes, throuL,di which wag'ons 
or stages could scarcely travel. All through this period, 
Congress was appropriating money for the construction of 
a National Road, carefully made, with hard surface, easy 
grades and good bridges, rinining westward from Cumber- 
land, in northwestern Maryland. It was meant in part 
for the convenience of emigrants, and in part for the pur- 
pose of showing the people how a good road ought to be 
made. It was gradually extended as far as Indiana, when 
the introduction of the railroad made it needless to build 
it any farther. Many other roads were built or im2:)roved 
by the United States during this period. 

424. The Erie Canal. — Freight can be carried more 
cheaply by canal than by ordinary roads, and there was 
a strong desire for more canals. The largest, the Erie 
Canal, w^as finished (1825) by the State of Ne\v' York, 
after eight years of work, and strong opposition from those 
who thought it a waste of money. De Witt Clinton had 
carried it through, and his opi)onents called it " Clinton's 
Big Ditch." But when it was found that it could carry 
freight from Buffalo to New York for one-tenth of the 
amount formerly paid, and that a stream of trade from the 
Great Lakes was pouring through the new canal to New 
York City, opposition ceased, and other States began the 
construction of canals, some of which received national 
aid. 

425. Protective and Revenue Tariffs. — Much of the ex- 
pense of the Federal Government is met by taxes, or 
duties, laid on imports ; and as to the rates of such duties 
there are two opinions. (i) Those wlio believe in Pro- 
tection wish the duties on imports, especially on manufac- 
tured articles, to be made liigh, so that the importer, 
after paying the duties, shall be compelled to charge a 
higher price for his goods. Then, the}^ argue, American 



262 SOCUL AND POLITICAL READJUSTMENT [1824 

manufacturers will be able to sell their goods at a profit; 
and the workmen employed in their manufactories will 
get good wages, and will buy the productions of the 
farmers of the country, so that all will prosper together. 
A list of duties arranged on this principle is called a 
Pi'otectivc Tariffs for it is meant to protect, and thereby 
increase, home manufactures. (2) Opposed to Protection 
is what is commonly called Free Tj'ade ; but this does not 
mean that there are to be no taxes on imports. Those 
who support it insist that the duties should be made only 
high enough to provide for the expenses of the govern- 
ment; that, if Protection is profitable, it is only for the 
few manufacturers who are interested, not for their work- 
men or the country; that the country will produce natu- 
rally what it can make the most money out of; and that, 
if we use taxation to bring about productions which would 
not come naturally, we are making all the people pay part 
of their number for engaging in unprofitable employments. 
A list of duties which pays no attention to Protection is 
called a Revenue Tariff, since it is meant onl}' to provide 
revenue for the government. 

426. The Tariff of 1824. — The Protectionist policy began 
to increase in favor with the people during this period. 
They remembered their experience in the war, when they 
had no manufactories, and British ships blockaded their 
coast, so that they could bring little from abroad ; and 
they were willing to undertake protection in order to 
meet the complaints of American manufacturers (§ 406). 
Congress adopted a Protective Tariff in 1824, and the 
struggle between the advocates of the two policies 
began. 

427. The Presidential Election in 1S24 resulted in con- 
fusion, for all the candidates and all the \'oters claimed 
to be Republicans. P"or Vice-President, Calhoun was 



1825J JOHN QUINCY ADAMS 

o-cncrally supported and was elected. There were 
candidates for I'resi- 
dent, John Qiuncy 
Adams ($412), Jackson 
(§ 412), Wilham H. 
Crawford, of Georgia, 
and CLay. When the 
votes of the electors 
were counted, it was 
found that none of the 
four had a majority of 
the whole number. The 
House of Representa- 
tives had then to choose 
a President from the 
highest three names on 
the list, Jackson, 
Adams, and Crawford. 
When the House of 
Representatives came 
to choose, as it was 
rec[uired to do by the 
Constitution, the friends of Clay voted for Adams, 
he was elected President. ^ 



263 
four 




John C. Calhoun. 



and 



(11) John Quincy Adams's Administration: 1S2S-1 

JiiMN QuiNCV Adams, Mass., President. John C. Calhoun, S. C, Vice-President. 

428.* The President John Quincy Adams, son of John 

Adams, had been in public life from his youth. P'rom 
1794 to 1 801, he was minister to the Netherlands and 

1 There were 99 electoral votes for Jackson, 84 for Adams, 41 for Craw- 
ford, and 37 for Clay. This election is often called the "scrub-race for 
the Presidency." Before the next election, parties had again been formed, 
and there were but two sets of candidates. 



164 



SOCUL ^ND POLITICAL RHylDJUSTMENT [1825 



to Prussia. From 1 803 to I 808, he was a United States 
senator, changing from a Federahst to a Democrat. He 
was tlicn minister to Russia, 1 809-18 17, and Secretary 

of State under Monroe. 
He was a man of upright 
character, great ability, 
and high motives ; but 
he had something of his 
father's inabiHty to make 
friends, and was never re- 
garded with popular favor. 
The most remarkable part 
of his career comes after 
183 1, M'hen, as a mem- 
ber of the House of Rep- 
resentatives, he cham- 
pioned the antislavery 
cause. 

429. The Railroad.— In 
John quincy Adams. internal affairs this ad- 

ministration was marked by an uncommon prosperity; 
incomes, both those of the government and of private 
persons, rapidly increased, and the public debt began to 
decrease. The country seemed to be gathering strength 
for the enormous changes which it was to experience 
during the next few years. For it was during this ad- 
ministration that England saw the invention of the railroad 
locomotive, one of the greatest events of modern times, 
which war, to show some of its most wonderful effects in 
the United States. The use of wooden or iron rails for 
cars drawn by horses had been known in England for 
nearly 200 years; and many Englishmen and Americans 
had tried to use steam instead of horses. In England, 
earl}- in the ccntur}', Trevithick had made a locomotive, 




1S28] RAIl.RO/IDS 265 

but it could only move slowly. A short railroad, with 
clumsy locomotives, was opened in England in 1825. In 
1829, George Stephenson, an Englishman, exhibited his 
locomotive, "The Rocket," which moved at the rate of 
30 miles an hour, and the modern railroad system began. 
In the United States, where men had for years been trying 
to improve the useless old roads, the first idea of the rail- 
road was soon tried. In 1827, two short lines of rails 
were laid at Quincy, near Boston, and at Albany; and the 
Baltimore and Ohio Railroad was chartered in Maryland, 
though it was then intended to use horses upon all these. 
In 1828, the first trip with an h^nglish locomotive was 
mad 2 on a Pennsylvania railroad, near Mauch Chunk; 
and a new railroad, expressly for steam, was chartered in 
South Carolina, to run westward from Charleston. In 
the following administration, the new system of Stephen- 
son was full)' introduced into the United States (§ 443). 

430. Settlement had now seized firml}' upon most of the 
country east of the Mississippi. Treaties had been made 
by the government with each Indian tribe, by which the 
Indians sold their lands to the government for settlement, 
and removed beyond the Mississippi. To this there were 
two exceptions. In the northwest, the territory covered 
by the present State of Wisconsin was not yet needed by 
settlers ; and in the southwest, some of the Georgia and 
Alabama Indians refused to sell their lands for settle- 
ment. 

431. The Cherokees were now the most powerful tribe 
of Indians in Georgia and Alabama, since the Creeks had 
been overthrown by Jackson (§ 396). They were intelli- 
gent and educated ; they had churches, schools, and 
newspapers of their own ; and they refused to remove across 
the Mississippi. F'inally, the State of Georgia became 
impatient, and decided to force the Indians to go. Presi- 



2 66 SOCIAL AND POLITICAL READJUSTMENT [1S28 

dent Adams, in 1827, interfered to protect the Indians, 
but Georgia declared its intention to resist the Federal 
Government, if necessary, by force. The State Avas at 
last successful in compelling the Cherokees to remove.^ 

432. Jefferson and John Adams died almost together, 
July 4, 1826, each believing that the other was left alive. 
The day of their death was a coincidence so remarkable 
as to attract the attention of the whole country. It was 
the fiftieth anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration 
of Independence, oi' which Jefferson was the author and 
Adams the principal supporter (§ 206). The two had 
quarrelled in 1 801, when Jefferson succeeded Adams as 
President, but they became close friends again afterward. 

433. Political Contest was renewed during this adminis- 
tration. The " era of good feeling " (§ 413) came to an 
end, and political excitement rose higher than it had done 
for thirty years before. Most of it came from the policy 
of high tariffs and internal improvements, which had been 
begun under Monroe (§ 4--)- 

434. The American System.— Clay had become Adams's 
Secretary of State, and the two supported warmly the 
system already begun in Congress. In 1828, anew tariff 
of still higher duties was adopted ; and the revenue which 
came from it was spent in improving roads, constructing 
canals, and deepening rivers and harbors. This union of 
a protective tariff and internal improvements was known 
as the "American System"; and it soon afterward 
became the foundation of the new Whig party, of which 
Clay was the leader (§ 479)- 

435. The Two Sections, North and South (;J 416), had 
grown to be very different in many respects, and it was 
by this time as difficult for one Congress to make laws to 

1 This was not accomplished until 1835, wlu-ii tlie PVdcral (Hivcnimeiit 
induced tlic Indians to make a treaty and sell their lands (§463). 



828] 



THE AMERICAN SYSTEM 



267 



,'iy^y 



suit them both as it had been for the British ParHament to 
make hiws to suit both 

Great Britain and the ' "' "'' ' '"'" ' ' ^'^ 

colonies. Tliis was es- 
peciall}' the case in re- 
gard to the iVmerican 
System, \\hich under- 
took to encourage manu- 
factures by increasing 
the duties on foreign 
goods. \\'hatever profit 
was derixed from it by 
factories went to the 
North, where all the 
factories were located. 
Labor in the South was 
I^erformed by negro 
slaves ; and men x\ho 
worked only because 
tliey were forced to do 
so were of no use in manufacturing (^^ 618). 

436. The Complaint of the South was, therefore, that its 
people were made to pa)- higher prices for goods imported 
from abroad, as well as for those produced at home, in 
order to give profits to Northern manufacturers. The sup- 
porters of the American System answered that the South- 
ern cotton-planters received their share of the profits by 
having a nearer market and better prices for their cotton. 
But the South refused to be convinced, and considered its 
people unfairly treated. When the tariff duties were in- 
creased in 1828, the legislatures of several Southern States 
protested against the act as unfair and unconstitutional ; 
and in the Presidential election of the same year the whole 
electoral vote of the South was thrown aerainst Adams. 




2 68 SOCIAL AND POLITICAL READJUSTMENT [1S28 

437. Two Parties were thus formed out of the old party 
whose members had called themselves either Republicans 
or Democrats since about 181 2. Those led by Adams 
and Clay, who supported the American System, now 
began to call themselves National Republicans ; ^ and their 
opponents, who disliked the American System, began to 
call themselves Democrats. Toward the end of this 
administration, the division had extended so far that the 
two parts of the former Republican party were two dis- 
tinct parties. 

438. The Presidential Election in 1828 was contested by 
the two new parties, and was one of great excitement. 
The National Republicans supported Adams and Richard 
Rush, of Pennsylvania, for President and Vice-President; 
while the Democrats, or "Jackson men" as they were 
often called, supported Jackson and Calhoun. There 
were many circumstances in Jackson's favor, in addition 
tothe vote of the whole South for him (§ 436). He was 
very much liked by the people everywhere; his military 
services, particularly at New Orleans, helped him greatly; 
and many thought that he ought fairly to have been 
chosen President in 1824 by the House of Representatives, 
since he then had a larger electoral vote than Adams 
(§ 427, note). I"or these and other reasons, the Demo- 
crats were successful, and Jackson and Calhoun were 
elected. They received 178 electoral votes, to 83 for 
their opponents. 

439. John Quincy Adams, like his father, was thus 
defeated after a single term of office ; and these two, 
father and son, are the only one-term Presidents in the 
first half-century after 1789. The tariff was not the chief 
reason for the son's defeat. In the case of both father 

' Duriii<^ tlic following admiiustraliun, the National Reimblicans took the 
name of the Whig party (§479). 



LH^DING F.VHNTS, iSiy-iSjS 269 

and son, the defeat came \'er}' lart^el}' from the rise of new 
ideas. In i iSoo, the old colonial ideas of " stroni^ 
government" were overthrown. In 1828, the change 
of government was made mainly because the people had 
no liking for Adams's administration, even though they 
had no great reason to dislike it : the government was 
changed because the people had changed. 

440. The Leading Events of the administrations of 
Monroe and John Ouinc)' Adams were as follows: 

181 7-2 1 : Monroe's First Term § 4 1 1 

1817: Admission of Mississippi 419 

1818 : Admission of Illinois 419 

Jackson seizes Pensacola 414 

18 19: Admission of Alabama 419 

Treaty for the annexation of I^'lorida.. 414 

1820: Admission of Maine 418 

Missouri Compromise 418 

1821 : Admission of INIissouri 418 

1 82 1-5 : Monroe's Second Term 413 

1822 : Congress begins the construction of 

roads 422 

1823 : The Monroe Doctrine 420 

1824: La Fayette's visit to the United States 421 

A Protective Tariff adopted 426 

Disputed Presidential election 427 

1825-9: John Quincy Adams's Term 428 

1826: Death of Jefferson and John Adams. . 432 

1827: Cherokee troubles in Georgia 431 

Horse-railroads introducetl 429 

1828 : Introduction of an English locomotive 429 

A new protective tariff adopted 434 

Formation of new parties 436 

Topics for Further Stuuv. 

1. Jackson in Florida. 

2. The removal of the Cherokees. 

3. The Cumberland road. 

4. The Holy Alliance. 

5. The revolt of the Sf)anish colonies in America. 



270 SOCUL AND POLITICAL RHADJlJSTMnNT 

6. The character and political principles of John Quincv 
Adams. 

7, The " tariff of abominations." 

Supplementary Readinc. 

Sources. — MacDonald's Select Doctimciits gives important 
documents relating to the Missouri Compromise (Nos. 35-41), 
the Tenure of Office Act (No. 42), the passage from Monroe's 
message enunciating the Monroe Doctrine (No. 43), and the 
})rotests of South Carolina and Georgia against the tariff of 1828 
(Nos. 44 and 45). "^\iQ. Aiinals of Congress, which ends with 
1824, is continued to 1837 by the Register cf Debates, known 
also as the Congressional Debates. The American State Papers 
extends to about 1828. To the collected writings of statesmen 
should now be added those of Calhoun, Webster, and Clay. 

Narrative Accounts. — There is as yet no first-rate extended 
account of the period from 18 17 to 1850, outside of the com- 
prehensive histories of Schouler, McMaster, and Von Hoist. 
Hildreth stops with 1821. Burgess's Middle Period \s a useful 
single volume on the political side. The presidential elections 
are treated in Stanwood, chaps. 9-1 1. Important biographies, 
in addition to those already mentioned, are Von Hoist's 
Calhoun, Roosevelt's Thomas H. Benton, Henry Adams's John 
Randolph, and Shepard's Van Buren. John Quincy Adams's 
Memoirs can now be supplemented by Benton's Thirty Years 
J7e7u. Among books of reminiscence, none is more entertain- 
ing than Josiah Quincy's Figures 0/ the Past. A number of 
works dealing primarily with the slavery controversy now 
become of importance, among them Wilson's Slave Power, 
Greeley's American Cofijlict, and Alex. H. Stephens's War 
between the States. On the financial side see Bolles's Financial 
History and Taussig's Tariff History. For State histories, 
Williamson's Maine, Carr's Missouri, Lowry and McCardle's 
Mississippi, and Pickett's Alabama are useful. 

Illustrative Literature. — See under Chapter XV., post. 



CHAPTER XV 

JACKSON AND VAN BUREN 

1829-1841 

(I) Jackson's Administrations: 1829-37 

Andrew Jackson, Tenn., Pres. ,' ^l^"^' ^ Calhoun, S C . yice-.Pres., .829-33. 

■' > . • ( Martin VAN BuREN, N. v., Vice-l'res., 1833-37. 

441. The New President. — Andrew Jackson was a very 
different person from those who had hitherto filled tlie 
office of President. They had been educated men, long- 
trained in public life, and quiet and dignified in manner. 
His life had been spent on the frontier, in farming, or 
fighting battles with Indians or British, or duels with 
enemies among his neighbors ; he had little education and 
a violent temper; and his manners were odd. But he 
was intensely honest ; no power or influence could make 
him consent to anything which he believed to be of dis- 
advantage to the people ; and he resisted any such 
measure with such persistence that the common name for 
liim was ' ' Old Hickory. ' ' He was a crabbed old soldier, 
who was determined to do right, but to do right in his 
own way; and he had little respect for dignity in a man 
unless the man had other good qualities than dignity. 
He did the country some harm, and a great deal of good ; 
but this change of Presidents, which seemed shocking to 
many persons at the time, was only part of a general 
change among the people. 

271 



27- 



JJCk'SON AND yAN RUREN 



[1829 



442. A Wonderful Prosperity marked the whole of Jack- 
son's presidency. Very much of it was chie to the in- 
troduction of the locomotive, a machine which changed 
the whole life of the people at a single step (§ 429). 



? 




Andki'IW JACK^o^. 



Poor roads had hitherto compelled Americans to move 
slowly, while they were eager to move quickly, and the 
enormous extent of their country had been more trouble- 
some than valuable to them ; but they now found the very 



i8-.i 



RAlLROylDS 



= 73 



instrument they needed. They began to move, act, 
think, and speak in an entirely new fashion. These eight 
years are the first that are altogether like our own times, 
though on a much smaller scale ; they are the beginning 
of the modern history of the United States. 

443. The Locomotive Engine of Stephenson was brought 
from England to the United States in 1831. But the 
Americans at once set to work to make their own engines, 
and soon succeeded, though their first attempts were 
naturally very clumsy and unserviceable. The first 
successful American locomotive was built in 1833. It 




Early Railroad Train. 

differed from the English locomotives in many respects, 
and suited our roads and climate better; and since then 
we have built our own.^ 

444. The Railroad System grew rapidly. Before 1835 
there were nineteen railroads built or under construction, 
their united length being twice the length of the island of 
Great Britain. Before the end of Jackson's second term, 
there were 1,500 miles of railroad in operation, and a 
great number of miles were being built. Within the next 
four years, nearly all the chief cities of the eastern States 
were connected by railroad, and the system had begun to 
spread through the western States. From this time, it 
is useless to attempt to state the advance of the railroad 

1 This first successful American locomotive, the "Arabian," was still 
running in.1883. It was exhibited at the Chicago railway exposition, and 
was burned by accident at Pittsburgli in the same year 



2 74 JACKSON AND l^AN BUREN [1S31 

system ; the figures are so large that they carry no ideas 
with them. It will be enough to say that there are now, 
in the United States, nearly as many miles of railroad as 
there are in all the other countries of the world taken 
together. 

445. The Advantages of the Railroad System were 
beyond calculation. Wherever it went, it changed the 
life of the people, opened up new country to settlers, and 
made settlements possible by carrying crops and goods 
easily. It gave the United States the advantages of a 
small country with the wealth of one of the largest 
countries of the world. Before 1830, men thought that 
it would require two or three hundred years for settle- 
ments to reach the Rocky Mountains : the railroad has 
done the work already. 

446. Anthracite Coal (§ 338) was first used successfully 
on steamboats and railroads in 1836 and 1837. It con- 
tained so much fuel in so small a space that its use aided 
both steamboats and railroads very much. They had 
both generally used wood for fuel up to this time. 

447. The Screw Propeller, to take the place of side 
wheels in ocean steamers, was introduced by John Erics- 
son in 1836. This required less fuel in a heavy sea, and 
thus promoted ocean navigation between the United 
States and Europe. The screw propeller, which was 
under water and out of the reach of an enemy's shot, 
brought steam war-vessels into use, and these began to 
replace the sailing-vessels which had before composed the 
navies of the world. Ocean navigation by steam, which 
had been attempted in 1819 (§ 337), was successfully 
begun in 1838, when the Siritis and Great ]]\'sti'rn 
crossed the Atlantic from England to the United States. 

448. Other Inventions marked this period. In 1834, 
McCormick took out a patent for a reaping-machine. 



i83: 



GROIVTH OF THE IVEST 



275 



Such machines had previously been tried in l'Ln_i;iand and 
the United States without success (^ 338); but in the 
next dozen years they were perfected. They made farm- 
\ng far easier than before, and western lands more profit- 
able. Colt j)atented his revolvini^ pistol in 1835, '^^^<-l 
with it came a i;reat chany;e in the forms of firearms. 
About 1836, the manufacture of friction matches began 
to do away with the former clumsy ways of obtaining 
fire. Hardly anything has increased the comfort of daily 
life so much as this one little invention. 

449. The Western States had now fairly begun their 
wonderful growth. Steamboats were carrying settlers 
and trade along the Ohio, the Mississippi, the smaller 
ri\'ers, and the great lakes. Almost all the present 
western cities, east of the Mississippi, had by this time 
appeared, though they were still small. During this 
period the western steamboats increased fourfold, and they 
built up towns as if by magic. When the first steamboat 
appeared at Fort Dearborn in 1833, there was no town 
there; six }'ears afterward, the settlement had become the 




Chicago in 1830. — Fori' Deakhokn. 



flourishing town of Chicago, and a line of eight splendid 
steamers was running to it from Buffalo and Detroit. 

450. The Eastern States were growing almost as rapidly 
as the We.st, and their cities no longer looked like over- 



276 JACKSON AND VAN BUREN [1S35 

grown villages. A "great fire" in New York City, in 
1835, destroyed $20,000,000 worth of property, more 
than the whole yearly receipts of the Federal Government 
had been before the War of 18 12; but the loss did not 
permanently injure the city. In the same year, New 
York City began the construction of the Croton Aqueduct, 
which was finished seven years afterward, and supplies it 
with water from a distance of forty miles. Because of the 
increase of manufactures, new cities, like Lowell and 
Paterson, were appearing; and the older cities felt the 
same influence. 

451. The Map of the United States in 1835 was very 
much the same as at present, east of Pittsburgh, though 
the cities have since grown far larger, and the railroads 
more numerous. West of Pittsburgh such cities as 
Chicago, Milwaukee, Minneapolis, St. Paul, Atlanta, and 
Montgomery were not }'et on the general maps: they 
were then either small villages or frontier forts. North 
and west of Missouri, the country was still a wilderness. 
Beyond the Rocky Mountains, on the Pacific coast, the 
country was still almost unknown (§ 528). 

452. The Population of the United States in 1830 was 
12,866,020, an increase of 3,000,000 in ten years (| 421), 
and nearly four times as many as in 1790 (§ 313). In 
1790, there had been only 75 post-offices in the United 
States: in 1830, there were 8,450, more than a hundred 
times as many. Immigration from ELurope had begun, 
and the steamboats and railroads made it easy for the 
immigrants to reach the fertile West. The receipts of 
the Federal Government from the sales of its western 
lands rose rapidly from $1,000,000 to $25,000,000 a 
year. 

453. The National Debt was practically paid off in 1835 ; 
and, for the first time in its experience, the Federal Gov- 




' THE UNITED STATES '^' 

IX 1830 

Scale of Miles 

y^^^^^ 60 100 gpo 390 ¥f) 



^ 



pitude'West 15 from Wasliinjrtou 10 



i'*^37] INTERNAL AFFAIRS 277 

crnnient foiuul that it was rcccivini^ more monc}' than it 
coukl use. Tlic amount not needed was cHvided among 
the States. l^ut the States were as prosperous as the 
J'Y^deral Government. They borrowed and spent money 
freel)' for tlie construction of raih'oads and canals; and, 
though many of their plans were not wise, they aided im- 
migration and settlement. Private prosperity was also 
general. The crops were abundant; manufactures were 
increasing; the banks doubled their number and capital; 
and every c^ie seemed to expect to become rich in a day. 

454.* New States. — Arkansas, a part of the Louisiana 
purchase, was admitted as a State in 1836. When 
Louisiana was admitted, Arkansas had become a part of 
Missouri Territor}', and was later, in 18 19, given a terri- 
torial government of its own. It was the only slave 
State to be formed out of the region south of latitude 36^ 
30', after the Missouri Compromise. Michigan, the fourth 
State formed out of the Northwest Territory, came in as 
a free State in 1837, after a delay due to a boundary dis- 
pute with Ohio. 

455. Education. — Public schools had now been estab- 
lished in almost all the States, and the public school 
system had come to be recognized as a necessary part of 
American life. It was realized that where every man 
votes, the State must, in self-defence, see that, so far as 
possible, every man is taught enough to enable him to 
vote wisely. Massachusetts now made the system still 
better by beginning the normal school system, for train- 
ing public school teachers. There were at this time 64 
colleges in the United States. During this period most 
of the States began geological surveys. They have been 
followed up by the Coast Survey, and other government 
surveys, until a large part of the surface of the country 
has been thoroughly mapped out. 




Henry Wadsworth Lonoeellow 



Oliver Wendell Holmes. 



(278) 



1830] yIMF.RICAN LITF.RATURH 279 

456. Newspapers bci^an to change their form about tliis 
time. In 1833 appeared the first issue of the New York 
Sun, the first of tliC newspapers of small price and large 
circulation. It was followed, two years afterward, by the 
New York Herald, which introduced the activity and 
enterprise in collecting news which mark modern news- 
papers. 

457. American Literature before 1830. — An English 
writer had asked, with some contempt, "Who reads an 
American book .-' " The c^uestion was hardly a fair one, 
for before 1830 there were American books well worth 
reading. Bryant, Dana, Halleck, and Drake, the advance- 
guard of the American poets, had made their appearance; 
Washington Irving had been recognized as a master of 
prose writing ; J. Fenimore Cooper had published The Last 
of the MoJiicaiis; and Noah Webster had issued the first 
edition of his English dictionary. And yet it must be 
confessed that American literature before 1830 was still 
weak. 

458. American Literature after 1830. — These eight years 
of Jackson's administrations were the beginning of a real 
American branch of English literature. Three poets 
made their appearance, Whittier (183 1), Longfellow 
(1833), and Oliver Wendell Holmes (1837). Poe was 
still a southern magazine editor, but was soon to be 
recognized as both a poet and prose-writer of genius. 
Hawthorne published his first important work, Twice-Told 
Tales (1837). Bancroft published the first volume of his 
History of the United States (1834). Prescott published 
his Ferdinand and Isabella (1837). For music, sculp- 
ture, and the drama the country still depended upon 
foreigners. 

459. Political Writing had lost something of the force 
for which Americans had formerly been remarkable 




(28o) 



1S30J 



POUTICAI. IVRITING 



{% 187). But oratory' liad improved: Webster was prob- 
abl\- tlic ijrcatest of all the orators that have used the 




Damrl Webster. 

English language; Clay was not much inferior to 
Webster; and Calhoun, though not a great orator, could 
hardly be surpassed as a master of pure argument. In 
law, Marshall, Story, and Kent were the best-known 
names ; but the number of able law}'ers Avas very great. 

480. The Washingtonian Movement, the parent of the 
present temperance societies, gained its greatest strength 
during this period. Drunkenness had been an enormous 
vice, though no greater in the United States than in other 
countries. It had been considered quite [)roper for a 
gentleman to get drunk after dinner, and not very im- 
proper for a clergyman to own a distillery. New England 
rum and other strong liquors were expected to be offered 



282 JACKSON AND VAN RUREN [1831 

to visitors, callers, or Avorkmcn ; and drunkenness was too 
common to be good reason for surprise. As a remedy, 
the Washingtonian societies did not usually demand a 
pledge of total abstinence, as is now the case. But their 
pledge had the same idea as those of the present temper- 
ance societies — the solemn promise of the drunkard to 
reform, and of others, not drunkards, to set him a good 
example. 

461. The Prisons, in most of the States, had hitherto 
been conducted on the brutal system which was then 
common in other countries. One State had used an old 
copper-mine as a State prison ; and most of the States 
used whipping and torture, under which criminals grew 
worse. About this time, the penitentiary system was 
introduced: labor took the place of whipping, and some 
real effort was made to reform the criminals. The foolish 
and cruel system of imprisonment for debt alsobegan to be 
abolished. 

462. The Abolitionists. — With changes of such far-reach- 
ing importance going on, it was impossible for people to 
continue to feel as they had felt about slavery. Many 
good people had hoped that, with the spread of population 
and the growth of industry, slavery would gradually dis- 
appear. In 183 1, however, William Lloyd Garrison, the 
editor of a newspaper called the "Liberator," published 
in Boston, called for the immediate and unconditional 
abolition of slavery. Those who agreed with him were 
called Abolitionists, and shortly organized an American 
Antislavery Society. Similar societies multiplied, greatly 
to the alarm of the South. The alarm was increased by 
an unsuccessful negro insurrection, under the lead of one 
Nat Turner, in Virginia, which the Abolitionists were 
falsely charged with instigating; and thus new occasions 
^rosc to increase the ill feeling between the two sections. 



I83I1 



INDIAN niFFICUI. TIF.S 



283 



463. Indian Difficulties were numerous durini;- this 
period. The Georgia Cherokees were at last moved 
across the Mississippi (§ 431). The Inchaiis in lUinois, 
Wisconsin, and Iowa, led by Black Hawk, revolted, and 



>^ 



GEO /r. \ G 1 I A 




A' St. Augustine 



C- Canaveral 




O 

o 



^ 



Si;m[ni)I.f. Wak. 



were put down onl\- after hard flighting. As a result, they 
gave up most of their lands. The most serious war was 
with the Seminole Indians, in Florida, who were led by 



284 JACKSON AND VAN RUREN [1832 

Osceola. Many negro slaves had fled to them from 
neighboring States, and the Indians refused to give them 
up as the price of peace. The war began in 1835, with 
the massacre of Major Dade and about 100 men, near the 
Withlacoochee River, and lasted for about seven years. 
The Indians took refuge in the swamps and everglades, 
where it was very difficult for the soliders to find them. 
Nevertheless, they Avere beaten in many small battles, 
and in one great battle, by Taylor, near Lake Okechobee; 
and finally they, too, were removed beyond the Missis- 
sippi.^ 

464. In Foreign Affairs the Federal Government was 
able to take a firmer tone than it had ever done before. 
For thirty }X'ars it had been endeavoring to obtain pay- 
ment from France for injuries done to American commerce 
(§ 318). France was slow in paying; and President 
Jackson recommended to Congress, without any appear- 
ance of anger, that enough French vessels should be 
captured to make up the amount due. France was 
exceedingly angry, and threatened war unless the Presi- 
dent would apologize, which he positively refused to do. 
Peaceful feeling was restored by the mediation of Great 
Britain ; and P>ance then paid the amount due. Similar 
claims were also promptly paid by Portugal and other 
nations; and it has never since been difficult for the 
government of the United States to obtain respect and 
attention to its claims against other nations. The United 
States has been able to accomplish the settlement of such 
claims b\' arbitration ; that is, by umpires. 

465. This Period of eiglit years Avas, as will have been 
seen, one of the most important in the history of the 

' Osceol;i was taken prisoner treacherously, in the second year of tlie 
war, while he was carrying a flag of truce. He was then imprisoned in a 
fort until his ihatli. 



1^3-1 POLITICAL AIFAIRS 2S5 

United States. It was like the opening of sprini^, wlicn 
ever}-thini^ leaps into growth. From that time, the 
people of the United States have been growing in wealth, 
but not in wealth alone. They have grown in educa- 
tion, in morals, and in all those things that make a people 
more kindly and useful to the world. Their i^ublic school 
system, their prison arrangements, and many of their 
other experiments have been imitated by other nations. 

(2) Political Affairs. 

466. President Jackson, as has already been said, was 
a man of great natural powers of mind. He was unedu- 
cated and had violent passions; but he was absolutely 
honest and sincere, and did not know what fear or hesita- 
tion meant. When he believed that anything was doing 
harm to the people, he struck at it as if it were an enemy 
of his own, regardless of the feelings of his opponents, 
who were, often, just as confident that they were right in 
their views. He Avas far more anxious to crush opposition 
than to convince and convert his opponents. It thus 
came about that the political history of these eight years 
was one of almost continuous excitement; and Jackson's 
friends and enemies accused one another of all sorts of 
misconduct. The four principal enemies attacked by 
Jackson were the former office-holders, the United States 
Bank, the "American System," and the nullificationists 
in the South. 

467. Office-Holders under the United States — postmas- 
ters, clerks, marshals, and others — had not hitherto been 
expected to take part in political contests. They did 
their work for the United States, and were paid for it. 
Jackson began by removing all the office-holders who 
were not his supporters, no matter how faithful they had 



2 86 JACKSON AND y^N BUREhl [1S32 

been as public servants. After him, every Administration 
did the same thing, until in 1887 the civil-service law 
provided for tenure of office during good behavior, and 
removal only for cause. The system of wholesale removal 
of political opponents, inaugurated by Jackson, is known 
as the "spoils system," and its effects upon the public 
service have been exceedingly bad. 

468. The Bank of the United States (§ 408) was, in 
Jackson's opinion, a most objectionable institution. He 
believed that the government revenues, which were 
deposited in the Bank, were used for the enrichment of its 
managers, to the injury of the people; and that the Bank 
tried to punish or reward public men in and out of Con- 
gress for opposing or helping it. He therefore declared 
war on the Bank, and stated his opinion of it very plainly 
in his messages to Congress. His supporters sided with 
him, and the country was soon divided by the question 
of " Bank or no Bank." 

469. A New Charter for the Bank was applied for in 
1832, although the existing charter did not expire until 
1836. The bill was favorably acted upon by Congress, 
but Jackson vetoed it, and the friends of the Bank in 
Congress were not numerous enough to pass the bill over 
the veto.i The next year, he ordered the Secretary of 
the Treasury to cease depositing the public revenues in 
the Bank ; and now the friends of the I^ank in Congress 
were not numerous enough to forbid this "removal of the 
deposits." Little by little, Jackson gained a majority 
in Congress; and when the twenty years of the Bank's 

^ The veto power of the Prcs'ulent is liis power to objrct to bills before 
they become laws (§ 281). When the President vetoes a Ijill, a vote of two 
thirds in its favor in each House is needed to make it a hiw; and this is 
generally not easy to obtain. F'^Mincr Presidents had not used tlie veto 
power often : Jackson used it freely, and his use of it seemed to his oppo- 
nents most unfair and tyrannical. 



I §3 2] OPPOSITION TO JACKSON 287 

first charter came to an end (in 1836), it ceased to exist 
as a government institution. This was the longest and 
severest struggle of Jackson's presidency, and he came 
out of it in triumph. The public revenues were now 
deposited in various State banks, selected by the Secre- 
tary of the Treasury (^^ 487). 

470. The American System of high tariffs and internal 
improvements (§ 434) also seemed to Jackson not only 
objectionable, but contrary to the Constitution as well. 
He believed that it gave Congress too much money to 
spend ; that it made Congress extravagant and wasteful 
in its expenditures ; and that it took money out of the 
pockets of the people for the benefit of a single class, the 
manufacturers. But, instead of attacking the tariff, he 
used the veto power against a number of bills appropriat- 
ing money for internal improvements, and they generally 
failed to become laws. In this contest, also, the President 
was finally successful in obtaining the support of a majority 
of the people and of CcMigress. 

471. The President's Opponents were mainl}' the National 
Republicans (§ 438), now led by Clay and Webster. They 
supported the Bank and the American System, because 
they believed them to be of the highest advantage to the 
country. They supported the Bank mainly because it had 
branches in every State, and its notes were good all over 
the country. Without the Bank, there was then, except 
gold and silver, no money which could be used in every 
part of the United States. They supported the American 
System as profitable to the country (§ 425). They felt 
that they were as honest in their beliefs as Jackson was 
in his, and that he had no right to speak of them and 
their plans in the terms which he was in the habit of using. 
It is very probable that Jackson had warmer friends and 
bitterer enemies th.an almost any other President. 



288 JACKSON AND VAN BUREN [1832 

472. An Antimasonic Party had grown up in New York 
and the neighboringf States. It beHeved that, in 1826, 
the society of Freemasons had carried away and murdered 
a citizen of New York, named William Morgan, who had 
revealed its secrets ; and it opposed the election of any 
Freemason to office. Both Jackson and Clay were Free- 
masons, and the new party opposed them both. It dis- 
appeared after the election of 1832. 

473. The Presidential Election in 1832 took place in the 
midst of the excitement which followed Jackson's veto of 
the new charter of the Bank (§ 469). The National 
Republicans, who supported the Bank, nominated Clay 
for President, and John Sergeant, of Pennsylvania, for 
Vice-President. The Democrats, who opposed the Bank, 
nominated Jackson for President, and Martin Van Buren 
(§ 483) for Vice-President. They had lost confidence in 
Calhoun, the late Vice-President, who had become a leader 
in the Nullification movement (§ 476), and took Van Buren 
instead of him. After an angry contest, the Democrats 
were successful, and Jackson and Van Ikiren were elected.^ 

474. The South had not ceased its opposition to a high 
tariff (§ 436). When a new protective tariff, known as 
the "tariff of abominations, " from its high duties, was 
adopted (in 1832), this feeling grew stronger than ever. 
It was strongest in South Carolina, where Calhoun was an 
honored and trusted leader. He argued that the Consti- 
tution gave Congress no power to enact a protective tariff; 
that such a tariff was contrary to State rights ; and that 
each State ought to protect its citizens from it. 

475. State Sovereignty. — It has been finally settled that 
the Union rests on the support of the whole nation, 

1 Out of 288 electoral votes, the Democratic candidates received 219, the 
National Republicans 49, and the Antimasonic candidates 7. South 
Carolina's II votes were cast for candidates of her own. 



I S3 2] NULLIFICATION 289 

tlivided into States out of necessit}- ; that it is rii^ht, just, 
and wise to respect the ec[ual rights of the States, as 
most excellent instruments of good government ; but that 
the national government in its allotted sphere has the 
right to compel all persons to obey its laws, in spite of 
State laws, and to prevent any State from leaving the 
Union. This was the doctrine laid down by Webster, in 
1830, in a great debate with Senator Hayne, of South 
Carolina. But it was the general belief in the South that 
the Union rested entirely on the support of the States ; 
that each State was altogether its own master ; and that 
each State stayed in the Union only because it chose to 
do so. This was the doctrine of State Sovereignty, or, 
as it was often called, improperly. State Rights. Of 
course, it followed from the doctrine of State sovereignty 
that, if any State believed its people to be unbearably 
wronged by the Union, it had the right to secede, or 
withdraw, from the Union. This was the doctrine of 
Secession. It was upheld by most men in the South, 
even by those who had not the slightest desire to put it 
in force. They would argue, work, and vote against 
secession ; but, if their State should vote to secede, they 
would have admitted the right to do so, and would have 
felt bound to " follow their State " (^ 615). 

476. Nullification. — Calhoun, like most other South- 
erners, belie\'ed in State sovereignty and the right of 
secession, but loved the Union, and did not wish to have 
any secession. To prevent it, he proposed that his State, 
still remaining in the Union, should declare that it had 
never given the Federal Government the power to pass 
any protective-tariff law, should declare the law null 
(without force) in South Carolina, and should forbid her 
citizens to obey it or pay the duties. This was called 
Nullification. The proposition was adopted by South 



290 JACKSON AND ^AN BUREN \.^^i3 

Carolina, but the other southern States took no part in it. 
Late in 1832, South Carohna called a convention which 
declared the tariff law of 1832 null and void, forbade the 
collection of the duties at Charleston or any other port in 
the State, and threatened to secede if the law was enforced. 
It also took steps to prepare an army for resistance. 

477. Jackson's Proclamation. — The President disliked the 
tariff law almost as much as Calhoun did, and he was then 
trying to have it repealed. But he had sworn to enforce 
the laws of the country, and he had no notion of \'ielding 
to the nuUificationists. He sent a naval force to occupy 
Charleston harbor and collect the duties from any vessels 
entering it. He issued a proclamation, warning the 
people of South Carolina that he intended to enforce the 
law at all hazards, and that blood would flow if they 
should resist it. All men knew that Jackson meant 
exactly what he said, and the warning was heeded. It 
was agreed in South Carolina to "suspend " nullification 
until after the adjournment of Congress. 

478. The Compromise Tariff of 1833 — Congress had no 
desire to push South Carolina to extremes, and man}' of 
its members who disliked protection made the nullification 
difficulty an excuse to vote against the tariff. A new 
tariff act, the "Compromise Tariff," was passed in 
1833, under which the duties were to be diminished 
every year until 1842. South Carolina claimed this as a 
victory, and repealed her ordinance of nullification. 
This was the last time that nullification was attempted by 
any State; the next effort was a secession by a number of 
States in 1861 (§610). 

479. The Whig Party of luigland had been distinguished, 
among other things, for its opposition to the king. 
About 1833 the name of Whigs was adopted by Jackson's 
opponents, because they considered him a tyrant, who 



1836] JACKSON'S IVORK 291 

used the favor of the people to make himself in tact a 
king-, without an}- regard to Congress or the laws. The 
name was taken by the supporters of the Bank and the 
American System, and by the southern nullifiers, who 
felt Jackson's proceedings as an attack on themselves. 

480. The Presidential Election in 1836 resulted in an 
eas\' \-ictor\- for the Democrats. They nominated Van 
Buren (§ 483) for President, and Richard M. Johnson, of 
Kentucky, for \"ice-President. The Whigs were in great 
confusion, and made no nominations. Clay was their 
real leader; but man\' of them thought Harrison a better 
candidate ; others preferred Webster ; and southern Whigs 
preferred Hugh L. White, of Tennessee, or other candi- 
dates. ^ 

481. The Successes of the President were thus complete. 
He had won all his political battles. He had kept his 
oath that, "by the Eternal," he would put down nullifi- 
cation and maintain the Union. He had driven Calhoun 
and his friends out of the Democratic party. He had 
driven the Bank of the United States almost out of exist- 
ence. He had succeeded in making Van Buren, who had 
supported him in all his struggles, President. He had 
succeeded in making Taney, who had supported him in 
his struggle with the Bank, Chief Justice. At the end 
of his second term, having beaten all his enemies, and 
rewarded all his friends, Jackson retired from public life 
to his home in Tennessee. 

482. Jackson's Influence. — There can be no doubt that 
much of what Jackson did had good effects ; that it has 
helped to make it easier for each of us to say just what 
he thinks, \\ithout being exposed to influences \\hich 

^ Out of tlie 294 electoral votes. Van Buren received 170, Harrison 73, 
White 26, Webster 14, and W. P. Mangum 11. No one received a majority 
of votes for Vice-President, and Johnson was chosen by the Senate. 



292 JACKSON AND FAN BUREN [1S37 

might make such a thing unpleasant or dangerous ; and 
that he thus helped to spread democracy. On the other 
hand, he did much that had bad effects, \\hich are still 
felt. In particular, he introduced the system of removing 
ofifice-holders who were not active supporters of the Presi- 
dent. Office-holders were thus compelled not only to do 
the public work for which the country paid them, but to 
work for their party besides. They were always at work 
to have this or that man nominated for office, while the 
mass of the people were busy with their daily occupations; 
and thus many things have been done apparently by the 
voice of the people, when they have really been contrived 
and put through by a small and active number of office- 
holders. Nothing could be more opposed to democracy 
than this ; and few things have done more harm. 

(11) Van Buren's Administration: 1837-41 

Martix Van Buren, N. Y., President. R. M. Johnson, Ky., Vice-President. 

483.* Van Buren. — Martin Van Buren had long been 
prominent in New York politics, and had held in succes- 
sion the offices of United States senator, governor of his 
State, and Secretary of State under Jackson. He was a 
Democrat, and a shrewd politician. He regarded himself 
as the legitimate successor of Jackson, and professed his 
agreement with Jackson in policy and ideas ; but people 
came to look upon him as lacking in independence, while 
his administration suffered from having to bear the con- 
sequences of some of Jackson's acts. 

484. Wildcat Banks. — During Jackson's struggle with 
the Bank of the United States, many new banks had been 
formed in various States, generalh' with little or no capital 
to pay the notes which they issued. They bought large 
quantities of cheaply printed bills. As these bills had 
cost them very little, they could afford to offer a higher 



1836] 



THE SPHCIH CIRCULAR 



293 



price in paper mone\- for lands in distant States and 
Territories than others 
could afford to offer in 
gold and silver. Having 
bought the lands for this 
depreciated mone}', the 
" wildcat" bankers sold 
them for good mone\', 
hoping that their own 
bills would not so- mi 
find their wa\' back hn- 
payment. If the)- were 
disappointed in this 
hope, the bank failed, 
and the managers start- 
ed a new one. Very 
many of these wildcat 
bank-notes were paid 
to government agents ^^^'^^''^ ^^"^ ^"'''''''• 

in the West for the public lands which the government 
^vished to sell at a low price to settlers.' 

485. The Specie Circular was issued b}' the government 
in 1836. It directed government agents to take onh' 
gold and silver in payment for lands. Wildcat bank- 
notes were now of no use in the West, and began to be 
sent back for payment. The banks had not the money 
with which to pay them. When the more honest of the 
bankers began to tr\- to raise money by offering what 
property they had at lower prices, they threw business 

' Such banks were a deliberate fraud upon the people, on whoni all the 
losses fell. They cannot exist at present, because of the national banking 
law (§ 670). A national bank cannot issue notes until it has deposited bonds 
at Washington with which to pay them, if necessary ; and all other banks 
that chose to issue bills would be taxed, by law, to such an extent as to 
drive them out of existence. 




294 JACKSON /tND VAN BUREN [i837 

into confusion. Prices (in paper money) had been high. 
As prices fell, every one became frightened, and anxious 
to sell before prices should fall quite to the bottom. Thus 
every one wanted to sell, and nobody cared to buy. Busi- 
ness men everywhere became continually more alarmed 
as they found themselves unable to pay their debts to 
others, or to get payment of what others owed them. 
Stich a state of affairs brings on what is called a panic, and 
is a terrible experience for a country in which it occurs. 

486. The Panic of 1837 began just after Van Buren's 
inauguration, and lasted for more than a }'ear. The 
banks suspended specie payments; that is, they declared 
that they had not the gold or silver to pay their notes. 
Men who had been rich were made poor in a day ; and a 
pile of bank-notes became almost as worthless as so much 
waste paper. There was hardly any work to be had ; 
and men who had not before been rich suffered distress, 
and sometimes starvation. During the first two months 
of the panic, the business failures in New York City alone 
amounted to more than $100,000,000. 

487. Democratic Policy. — The Federal Government, 
which had lately had so much money that it was com- 
pelled to divide a part of it among the States (§ 453)» 
could now get no money at all. All its revenues had 
been deposited in the State banks (§ 469) ; and these 
banks were unable to pay them over. President Van 
Buren called a special session of Congress. It passed a 
law allowing the Treasury to issue its own notes to the 
amount of $10,000,000, and this gave the government 
some relief. The Whigs urged the establishment of a 
new United States Bank, as the best means of avoiding 
any such difficulties for the future ; but Van Buren and 
his party resisted the demand steadily, and proposed an 
entirely new plan, called the independent treasury system. 



1K40] THE INDEPENDENT TREASURY 295 

488. The Independent Treasury System provided that the 
public revenues should no loni^^er be deposited in private 
banks, but in certain branches of the Treasury Department 
in a few leadin<j cities. The collecting- ofificers were to 
give bonds ; that is, legal promises b\' responsible men to 
make good any loss of money by these officials. For 
about three years, it was not possible to get a majority of 
both Houses of Congress to make this a law. In 1840. 
however, it became a law, and the government was cut 
loose from banks. ^ 

489. Repudiation. — Man)- of the States had borrowed 
money for internal improvements (§ 453); and the}' now 
found it difficult to pay their debts. Some of them 
refused to pay altogether; and, as States cannot be sued 
by private persons, this "repudiation " of their debts was 
successful. Some of the repudiating States afterward paid 
their debts, when they became more prosperous. 

490. The Population of the countrv- in 1840 was 17,069,- 
453, an increase of more than 4,000,000 in ten }-ears 
(j< 452). In spite of the panic, there were man}- evi- 
dences of real growth and prosperity among the people. 
After the first effects of the panic passed over, business 
settled down to firmer foundations. Railroad building 
had gone on steadily, and in 1841 there were nearh- 
4,000 miles in operation. 

491. Inventions. — Goodyear, in 1839, patented his plan 
of "vulcanizing" india-rubber, by \\hich it was made 
hard enough to resist wear and tear, and to be moulded 
into the innumerable articles for which it is now used. 
In the same year, W. F. Marnden began carr}ing parcels 
between Boston and New York. Out of this little enter- 

' The Inilependent Treasury law was repealecl by the White's in 1S41 
(§ 501). re-established by the Democrats in 1846 (§521), and is still, in its 
main features, the financial method l<illowi-d l>v the United States. 



296 JACKSON AND yAN BUREN [1840 

prise have since grown the great express companies which 
now reach all parts of the country. 

492. The Abolitionists (§ 462) were preaching against 
negro slavery more zealously than ever. They were not 
allowed to enter the slave States, but their books and 
newspapers went there and excited the most intense 
anger. Southern governors and legislatures tried to get 
possession of leading Abolitionists, in order to punish 
them ; and southern speakers and newspapers began to 
declare plainly that their section would not remain long 
in a Union in which men were allowed to stir up the 
negroes to rebellion (§ 603). In the North, people as 
yet cared very little about slavery, considering it a matter 
for which the southern States alone were responsible. 
But they felt angry that these few Abolitionists should 
make strife between North and South, and disliked the 
Abolitionists as much as the Southerners did. 

493. Riots were common for a time in the North, when- 
ever an Abolitionist meeting was announced. The 
Abolitionist speakers were mobbed, pelted with stones 
and eggs, and chased away. In one of these riots, at 
Alton, in Illinois, one of the leading Abolitionists, named 
Lovejoy, was killed. In another, in Philadelphia, a large 
hall, called Pennsylvania Hall, built by the Abolitionists, 
was destroyed. But, toward the end of this period, the 
Abolitionists became more numerous, and the riots 
became less common. Besides, Congress had done a 
very foolish thing, which roused sympath}' for the Aboli- 
tionists in the North. 

494. The Right of Petition is looked upon as a very 
sacred thing. Congress is not bound to grant any petition 
that may be offered to it; but every man feels that Con- 
gress is bound to receive any respectful petition that is 
presented, from an}- person, or on an}' subject. The 



1840] THE MORMONS 297 

Abolitionists had been senclini; to Congress many petitions 
against slavery. These petitions were ver)' disagreeable 
to southern members, and Congress at last decided not 
to receive any more of them. This decision was disliked 
by the people of the North, even b}' those who did not 
favor the Abolitionists. Great numbers of petitions to 
change the decision poured in upon Congress; and, after 
a struggle of four years, Congress decided to receive the 
petitions again, and the "gag-rule," as it was called, 
disappeared. 

495. The Mormons began to be a source of trouble about 
this time. They were followers of a man named Joseph 
Smith, who had given them Avhat he called a new Bible. 
They regarded him as a prophet, and Christians as 
"Gentiles," or heathen. At first, they gathered into a 
settlement near Independence, in western Missouri, where 
they made themselves unpleasant to their neighbors, and 
Avere driven away by mobs. They then settled at 
Nauvoo, in Illinois, near Burlington, Iowa. Here they 
became still more annoying to their neighbors, and 
began to teach that a man may have an}- number of \\ives 
at the same time. In 1844, Smith was shot by a mob, 
and the Mormons moved away from Nauvoo to Utah 
(§ 586). 

496. Canada was the scene of a rebellion against the 
British Government in 1837. Many persons in the State 
of New York were inclined to help the Canadian Patriots, 
as they were called, and endeavored to cross into Canada, 
near Niagara Falls, for that purpose. President Van 
Buren took care that all such attempts should be stopped ; 
and nothing was done by the United States of which 
Great Britain could rightfully complain. 

497. The Boundary of Maine, in its eastern and northern 
portions, had never been exactl}' settled. There was a 



298 JACKSON AND y^N BUREN [1840 

strip of land which was claimed by Maine and by New 
Brunswick ; and about this time the two parties became 
so angry that affairs looked warlike. Forts were built, 
and troops sent to the disputed territory. General Scott 
was sent to the spot by the President; and he managed 
to keep the peace until the matter was settled by treaty 
in 1842 (§ 503). 

498. The Election of 1840.^ — Political affairs in 1840 took 
an unusual turn. The panic of 1837 had passed by, but 
many of its effects remained ; and a smaller panic took 
place just before the election of 1840. In such times of 
business trouble, many persons are likely to vote against 
the party in power; and the Whigs promised general 
prosperity if their candidates were elected. The Presi- 
dential election in 1 840 was a singular contest. The 
Democrats renominated Van Buren and Johnson. The 
Whigs nominated Harrison and Tyler (§ 500). Ameri- 
cans are apt to like a candidate who has been poor and 
has worked his way to prominence by honesty and trust- 
worthiness ; and the Whigs managed to excite a great 
popular enthusiasm for Harrison. They built large log- 
cabins, such as he had lived in, and gathered in them to 
make speeches, drink hard cider like Western settlers, 
and sing songs about Tippecanoe (§ 350). Their public 
meetings were measured by the acre, and their processions 
by the mile. The Democrats could excite no such feel- 
ing about Van Buren, and Harrison and Tyler were 
elected. The Abolitionists, or Liberty party, also nomi- 
nated candidates, but only a very few persons voted for 
them.' 

499. The Leading Events of the administrations of Jack- 
son and Van Buren were as follows: 

' Out of 294 electoral votes, Harrison and Tyler received 234, and the 
Deni(jcratic candidates 60. 



LEADING EVENTS, iS^g-iS^o 299 

1S29-33 : Jackson's First Term § 44 i 

1830: General removal of office-holders. . . . 467 

1831 : Al)olition of slavery p)roposecl 462 

1832 : Black Hawk War 463 

Bank charter bill vitoed 4(^9 

New protective tariff act passed 4 74 

Nullification 476 

1S33 : Compromise Tariff 478 

1833-37 : Jackson's Second Term 473 

1S33 : Removal of the deposits 4^9 

First American locomotive 443 

1S34: McCormick's reaping-machine 448 

1S35 : Great fire in New York City 450 

Seminole War begins 4(^3 

1836: Anthracite coal used in steamlxiats.. . 446 

Screw propeller invented 447 

Arkansas admitted 4 54 

1S37: INIichigan admitted 4 54 

1837-41 : Van Buren's 'Ferm 483 

1837: 'Fhe panic begins 4 86 

'Fhe Alton riot .... 493 

'Fhe Patriot rebellion in Canada 496 

1838: Kejuidiation of State debts 489 

'Fhe Philadelphia xuA 493 

Abolition petitions refused by Congress 494 

1839: INIormons settle at Nauvoo 495 

FJoundary dispute in Maine 497 

1S40: Independent Treasury law passed. . . . 488 

Topics for Further Study. 

1. Was Jackson a typical F)emocrat .' 

2. The bank controversy. 

3. The life of William Floyd (jarrison. 

4. 'Fhe northeast boundary dispute. 

5. Appointments and removals under Jackson. 

6. 'Flie Webster-Hayne debate. 

7. Why did South Carolina lead in advocacy i)f nullification .'' 

8. John (^uincy Adams in the House nf Representatives. 

Supplementary Rfadixc. 

Sources. — ]\racF)onald's Seler/ Documents gives extracts from 
the j)rincipal documents relating to the bank controversy (Nos. 



300 JACKSON AND l^AN BUREN 

46, 50-52, 54, 57-62, 64, 65-68), the Wcbster-Hayne debate 
(Nos. 47-49), and nullification (Nos. 53, 55, 56), and the 
constitution of the American Antislavery Society (No. 6^,). 
The platforms of the various political parties are given in Stan- 
wood's History of the Presuletjcy. The Register 0/ Debates ends 
with 1837; it is followed by the Cougressiofial Globe, which 
begins, however, with 1833. 

Narrative Accounts. — As has already been said, the jack- 
sonian period still lacks its historian. An understanding of it 
must be sought, outside of the general histories, m the 
biographies and writings of leading public men, in the proceed- 
ings of Congress, and in newspapers. The principal secondary 
authorities continue to be the same as those cited in the note 
to Chapter XIV. Peck's From Jackson to Polk is a useful 
general account. There are lives of Jackson by Parton and 
Sumner, and of Van Buren by Shepard. On financial ques- 
tions see, in addition to the general works, Taussig's Tariff 
History, Bolles's Financial History of the Uiiited States, Bisfiop's 
History of American Manufactures, Bourne's Surplus Revenue 
ofi8jy,^nd Sumner's History of Afnerican Currency. Hous- 
ton's Critical Study of Nullification in South Carolina is the best 
work in that field. Of books of reminiscence, Sargent's Public 
Men and Events, Amos Kendall's Autobiography, and Ben: 
Perley Poore's Perley's Reminiscences are especially useful. The 
best account of the abolition movement is in Garrisons' Williain 
Lloyd Garrison. Cooley's Michigan is the best short history of 
that State. 

Illustrative Literature. — G. C. Eggleston's Red Eagle ; 
H. B. Stowe'sZ'm// G. P. R. James's Old Dominion ; J. P. 
Kennedy's Quodlibet ; Edward Eggleston's Hoosier Schoolmaster 
and Circuit Rider. 



CHAPTER XVI 

TEXAS AND THE MEXICAN WAR 

1841-1849 

(I) Harrison's and Tyler's Administrations: 1841-=; 

Wm. H. Harrison, O , President John* Tyler, Va., Vice-President and President. 

500. President Harrison called a special session of Con- 
gress to consider the financial needs of the country. 
Before it could meet, Harrison died suddenly, April 4, 
1 841, onl}' a little more than a month after his inauijura- 
tion. Vice-President T}-ler thus became President. 
T}'ler had been a Whig- only because of his opposition to 
Jackson (§471); and he was known to be opposed to 
most of the measures which the Whigs desired. They 
had nominated him to get votes in the South, and now 
found themselves confronted by the troublesome veto 
power of the new President (§ 469). 

501. The Whigs and the President. — Congress met in 
May, 1 841. The Whigs had in each House a majority 
large enough to pass laws, but not large enough to defeat 
the veto. They began by repealing the Sub-Treasury 
act (§ 488), and Tyler allowed the repeal to become law. 
They then passed two acts to establish a National Bank, 
but Tyler vetoed them both. No more was done at this 
session in this matter, and no serious attempt has ever 
since been made to establish a single great National Bank, 
though a national banking system has been established 

301 



302 



TEXAS AND THE MEXICAN WAR 



[184, 



(§ 484, note). The Whigs were exceedingly indignant 
at the conduct of the President, but could do nothing. 
The members of the Cabinet resigned, except Webster, 
who was negotiating a treaty with Great Britain (§ 502). 



isn 




William Henry Harrison. 




John T^ ler 



For the first two years of this administration, the Whig 
majority in Congress did little more than quarrel with 
Tyler. Then the Democrats obtained a majority in the 
House of Representatives, and Congress and the President 
agreed better. A new tariff was adopted in 1842, to take 
the place of the compromise tariff of 1833, which had now 
come to an end (§ 478). It was so arranged as to pro- 
tect American manufactures, and therefore the South was 
opposed to it; but there was no attempt to resist or 
nullify it. 



1842] THE ORHGON COUNTRY 303 

502. Extradition of criminals between the United States 
and Great Britain \\as secured by a treaty which was made 
in 1842. Each country agreed to arrest and send back 
criminals who should escape to it from the other country. 
It was thus no longer possible for a criminal to find safety 
by simply crossing the Atlantic. Similar treaties have 
since been made w ith most other countries, so that there 
is now hardh" a corner of the civilized world in which a 
criminal can find safe refuge. 

503. The Northern Boundary, between the United States 
and Canada, from Maine to the Rocky Mountains, was 
settled by the same treaty. This put an end to the Maine 
difficulty (>j 497). West of the Rocky Mountains, in 
what was then called the Oregon Country, the boundary 
could not be agreed upon, and both countries had some 
years before arranged to occcupy the country together until 
it should be necessary to decide the matter. The treaty 
continued this arrangement for a time. 7\merican emigra- 
tion to Oregon had alread}^ begun ; and Fremont, of the 
regular army, was beginning explorations to find passes 
through the Rocky Mountains (>J 529). 

504. The Oregon Country covered what are now the 
States of Idaho, Washington, and Oregon. It was 
claimed by the United States, partly on the ground that 
it was a part of the Louisiana purchase (§ 334), though 
this was exceedingly doubtful, and partly because it had 
been first explored by Lewis and Clarke (§ 335). Great 
Britain denied both of these claims, but could not give any 
very conclusive reasons for her own claim to the country. 
The truth seems to have been that the United States had 
very little claim to Oregon, and Great Britain none at all. 
After all, the best reason why the United States should 
have the country was that the American settlements there 
were increasing rapidly, while there were hardly any 



304 TEXAS AND THE MEXICAN IV AR [i844 

English settlements, and little prospect of any. The 
question was not settled, however, until 1846 (§ 523). 

505. Texas was not yet a part of the United States. 
The United States had at first claimed it as a part of the 
Louisiana purchase (§ 334, note) ; but the claim had been 
given up, in 1819, in exchange for Florida (§414), and 
Texas remained a part of Mexico. Soon American 
settlers began to enter Texas; and, as most of these were 
from Southern States, they brought their negro slaves 
with them. The new settlers had little liking for Me.xico, 
and did not obey when the Mexican Government forbade 
slavery within its limits. 

506. Mexico had rebelled against Spain, and become 
independent. But it had a most disorderly government, 
in which generals of the army were in the habit of seizing 
supreme power and forcing the people to obey them ; 
while the American settlers were not in the habit of 
obeying any one whom they had not helped to elect. In 
1835, they openly rebelled, and drove the Mexican troops 
out of Texas. The next year, Santa Anna, the Mexican 
ruler, invaded Texas in a most cruel manner, murdering 
prisoners, sick, and wounded ; but the Texans, under 
General Sam Houston, met him with far fewer men at San 
Jacinto, near Houston, and defeated him. Mexico made 
no further attempt to conquer Texas, which remained an 
independent republic. 

507. The Annexation of Texas was very much desired, 
especially by the South ; and plans to bring Texas into 
the Union were being constantly discussed. They were 
not successful at first, for the annexation was not desired 
by the Whigs in the South, or by either party in the 
North, and only Southern Democrats were in favor of it. 
Tyler made a treaty of annexation with Texas in 1844, 
but the Senate refused to ratify it (§ 281), and it failed. 



1S45] SL/iyE-STATE REPRESENTATION 305 

The annexation was not completed until after the Presi- 
dential election at the close of Tyler's term of office 
(§516). 

508. Slave-State Representation was the main reason 
for the desire of the Southern Democrats to annex Texas, 
in order to give the South an equal share in the Senate. 
Laws are made by the Senate and House of Representa- 
tives together. The South was always the weaker party 
in the House of Representatives, for its population was 
smaller than that of the North. But each State is equally 
represented in the Senate; and, so far, a new slave State 
had always been admitted to balance a new free State. 
In 1845, when Florida was admitted, there were 27 States 
in the Union, 13 free States and 14 slave States. All the 
southern territory was then used up, and no more slave 
States could be formed ; while the North had still a vast 
amount of w^estern territory, from which new free States 
could be formed. It was thus certain that the South 
would soon be in a minority in both Houses of Congress, 
so that laws might be passed which would injure the 
system of slavery. Texas was so vast a territory that it 
Avas hoped that it might be cut up into four or five slave 
States. 

509.* Florida. — The territory of Florida, purchased from 
Spain in 1819, was in 1845 admitted as a State, with laws 
permitting negro slavery. 

510. The Electro-Magnetic Telegraph came into practical 
use in 1844. There had been so-called "telegraphs" 
for many years before ; but these were only long lines 
of signal-posts, at some distance from one another, which 
sent messages altogether by sight, one letter at a time. 
In 1837, Samuel F. B. Morse took out his first patent 
for applying electricity as a force for telegraphing through 
wires. Six years afterward. Congress appropriated money 



3o6 



TEXAS AND THE MEXICAN IVAR 



[1844 



to try the invention. In the following )-ear, 1844, the 

first line was constructed 
from Baltimore to 
Washington, and proved 
to be a success. Tele- 
graph companies were 
at once formed, and 
new lines were con- 
structed. 

511. The Mineral Re- 
sources of the United 
States were not yet 
much developed. Salt 
was produced near 
Syracuse, in New York. 
Pennsylvania and 
northern New^ Jersey 
had long produced iron, 
and the Pennsylvania 
beds of anthracite coal were coming into knowledge and 
use (§ 446). There were lead-mines in northern Illinois 
and eastern Iowa ; and a few small copper-mines had been 
worked without much success in Connecticut and New 
Jersey. Gold was found in Virginia, North Carolina, and 
Georgia; but the total amount produced by these mines 
in all the years up to 1846 was not equal to a half-year's 
product afterward from the California mines. The won- 
derful mineral resources of Missouri and Tennessee were 
hardly known. No one knew that there was a wealth of 
petroleum under the surface of Pennsylvania and other 
States. California, New Mexico, and Nevada still be- 
longed to Mexico ; and there was no knowledge of the 
mineral resources of this region, or of those of the eastern 
slope of the Rocky Mountains. 




SaMI'KL 1'. U. INIoKaK 



t844] the dorr REBELLION 307 

512. Copper became one of the cjreat mineral pro- 
ductions of the United States in 1 844. In that year 
the Indians at last gave up the country along Lake 
Superior, in northern Michigan (i^ 454) ; and exploration 
soon found it to be rich in copper. Companies were 
formed at once, and copper-mining became a productive 
industrv'. 

513. The Dorr Rebellion The power to vote had now 

been gixxMi, in almost all the States, to all men over 21 
years of age. Rhode Island, however, still confined the 
right of voting to those who owned a certain amount of 
property. This, and some other features of the govern- 
ment, were \'ery unsatisfactory to many of the people; 
and in 1 842 an attempt was made to change these features 
of the government by force. The attempt was called the 
Dorr Rebellion, from the name of its leader. It was put 
down by the State government, and its leader was im- 
prisoned for a time ; but most of its objects were accom- 
plished peaceably within a few years. 

514. The Anti-Renters. — The descendants of some of 
the old Dutch " patroons " (§ 112) still held their lands 
along the Hudson River, and refused to sell them. The 
rents were low ; but the tenants wished to buy and own 
their lands, the leases of which had come down to them 
from their fathers. About 1844, many of the tenants 
refused to pay rent any longer ; and there were so many 
disturbances that the governor of New York was obliged 
to call out the militia to restore order. Most of the 
" patroon lands " were then gradually sold to the tenants, 
and the great estates disappeared. 

515. The Presidential Election in 1844 turned on the 
proposed annexation of Texas (§ 507). For President 
and Vice-President, the Whigs nominated Clay and 
Theodore Frelinghuysen, then of New York, both of 



3o8 TEXAS AND THE MEXICAN IV AR [i844- 

whom were opposed to annexation. It was expected 
that the Democrats would again nominate Van Buren 
(§ 483) ; but he was also opposed to annexation, and the 
Southern Democrats succeeded in preventing his nomina- 
tion. The Democrats then nominated James K. Polk, of 
Tennessee, and George M. Dallas, of Pennsylvania, who- 
were in favor of annexation. The antislavery men in 
the North could not endure the thought of the annexation 
of more slave territory; but Clay's opposition was not 
decided enough for them, and the Liberty party nominated 
candidates of their own. Clay did not lose many votes 
by this, but he lost enough to lose the great State of 
New York and the election. Polk and Dallas were 
elected.^ 

516. The Result of the Election was the annexation of 
Texas. When Congress met in December, it took the 
success of the Democrats as a verdict by the people in 
favor of annexation, and in the following spring passed a 
resolution consenting to it. Tyler at once sent the reso- 
lution to Texas, whose government agreed to it, and in 
the following December the State of Texas was admitted 
to the Union (§ 522). Texas was the last slave State 
admitted ; but from the time of its admission there was 
hardly any peace on the subject of slavery until slaver}^ 
was abolished in 1865. 

' There were 275 electoral votes, of which Polk and Dallas received 170, 
and Clay and Frclint^huysen 105. If New York's 36 votes had gone to Clay 
and Frelinghuysen, they would have been elected by 141 votes to 134. 
(§ 295)- 



i845] 



POLK'S ^DMINISTRylTION. 



309 



(II) Polk's Administration: 184S-9 

James K. Polk, Tenn., President. George M. Dallas, Penn., Vice-President. 

(i) I}itci-)ial Affairs. 

517. Discoveries and Inventions were numerous during this 
period. One of the most 

important was the sewing- 
machine, for which a 
patent was taken out by 
EHas Howe, of Massa- 
chusetts (1S46). It has 
since been greatly im- 
proved, and has made 
household life and work 
far easier than when all 
sewing was done b}^hand. 
Another great step was 
the use of ether to produce 
unconsciousness during 
surgical operations, intro- 
duced by Dr. Morton, of 
Boston, in i S46. 

518. Newspapers. — R. 
M. Hoe, of New York, 
patented his cylinder printing-press (1847), ^vhich, with 
its improvements, has made it possible to print the enor- 
mous number of copies issued by the newspapers of the 
present day. A press association was also formed in New 
York City (1849): its business was to gather news for 
all the newspapers belonging to it. There are now a 
number of such associations in the countr}-. 

519. Education. — A naval school was formed at An- 
napolis (1845); before that time, the officers of the navy 




J AMES K. Polk. 



TEXAS AND THE MEXICAN IV AR 



"1846 



had received their training on board ship. The Smith- 
sonian Institution was founded at Washington (1846), by 




The Hoe Printinu-machine. 



a legacy left to the United States by James Smithson, 
an Englishman. Its purpose is to aid in increasing 

knowledge ; and it has done 



so by forming valuable 
museums, and b\' printing 
and issuing to the people 
many valuable books and 
papers on scientific subjects 
of special importance. 

520. The Department of 
the Interior was organized 
as one of the departments 
of the government (§ 296). 
The country had increased 
very much in wealth ; and the government business re- 
lating to the country itself had become so large that the 
departments of State and the Treasury were no longer 
well fitted to attend to it. It was therefore determined 
to form this new department for that purpose. 




Ancient Hand Printing-press. 



1S46] "FIFTY-FOUR FORTY OR FIGHT'' 311 

521. In Political Affairs, the Democrats had obtained 
entire control of the government b}' the election of 1 844. 
In 1846, they re-established the Subtreasury s)'stem 
(>J 501), and it has remained in force ever since. In the 
same year, the last remnant of the ' ' American S\'stem 
(§434) was swept awa}-. A new tariff act was j^assed, 
which disregarded the principle of protection to manufac- 
tures, and aimed only to raise revenue for the gox'ern- 
ment. This system remained in force until 1 861, when 
protection was again begun (§ 691). 

522.* New States. — Three new States were admitted to 
the Union during Polk's administration: Iowa, the fourth 
State formed from the Louisiana purchase, in 1846; Wis- 
consin, the fifth and last State formed from the old 
Northwest Territor}', in 1848; and Texas. Of the three, 
Texas alone had slaver}\ 

523. The Oregon Country was secured to the United 
States in 1846 by a treaty with Great Britain, which 
fixed the boundar}- between British America and the 
United States, west of the Rocky Mountains, as at 
present. The United States had claimed some territory 
north of this line as far as Alaska, in latitude 54" 40' ; and 
Great Britain had claimed the territory south of the line 
to the Columbia River. A large party in the United 
States preferred war with Great Britain to giving up the 
American claim: they demanded "Fifty-four Fort}- or 
Fight." But by this treaty both Great Britain and the 
United States now surrendered part of their claims, and 
took a middle line as the boundary.^ 

1 There was some further dispute as to the course of the northern 
boundary-line after it reached the Pacific inlets ; but this was settled by 
another treaty in 187 1 (§ 777). 



312 TEXAS AND THE MEXICAN IV A R [1846 

(2) On'j^in of the Mexican ]Vaj'. 

524. The Texan Boundary. — Texas was still claimed by 
Mexico as a part of her territory ; and she was naturally 
displeased when, without her consent, Texas was annexed 
to the United States. Nevertheless she showed no signs 
of intention to make war, and seemed disposed to settle 
the matter by treaty. Before this could be done, steps 
were taken which made war unavoidable. The western 
boundary of Texas was unsettled. Mexico asserted that 
it was the Nueces River; Texas, that it was the Rio 
Grande. Between the Nueces and the Rio Grande was a 
strip of territory claimed by both parties ; and in this the 
Mexican war began. Early in 1846, General Ta}-lor, 
who commanded in Texas, was ordered by President Polk 
to take possession of the disjDuted territory. Taylor 
crossed the Nueces at Corpus Christi, marched his army 
to the Rio Grande, and took up his position at Brownsville 
(then called Fort Brown). 

525. The First Bloodshed. — Taylor found that Mexican 
troops were crossing the Rio Grande ; and he sent a 
scouting party of dragoons, under Captain Thornton, up 
the river from Brownsville. Thornton's party was sur- 
prised and captured by a superior force of Mexicans. 
Several men were killed and wounded, so that this was 
the first bloodshed of the war. 

526. Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma. — So many 
Mexicans had now crossed the river that Taylor moved 
back toward the Nueces River, with about 2,000 men, to 
secure a part of his supplies. Having accomplished this, 
he set out on his return to Brownsville. On his road he 
met the Mexican army, three times his own number, at 
Palo Alto, near Brownsville, and defeated them after a 
whole afternoon's battle. The next morning, Ta}'lor 



2846J PALO ALTO AND RES AC A DE LA PALM A Z^Z 




SCALE OF MILES 

.".0 100 200 

War with Mexico. 



314 TEXAS AND THE MEXICAN IV A R [1846 

resumed his march towards Brownsville, and found the 
Mexicans strongly posted behind a ravine called Resaca 
de la Palma. He attacked them again, routed them, and 
drove them across the Rio Grande into Mexico. He then 
followed leisurely across the river, took possession of 
Matamoras, and there waited for reinforcements (§ 531). 

It is only fair to notice that the Mexicans were under 
great disadvantages throughout the war, though they 
were themselves to blame for them. Their men were 
untrained ; their arms and equipments were bad ; their 
government was inefficient, and had little money ; and 
their generals were usually ignorant and worthless. But, 
even with this admission, the manner in which the armies 
of the United States constantly defeated superior numbers 
throughout the war must be considered remarkable. 

527. War Declared. — As soon as the news of the cap- 
ture of Thornton's scouting party reached Washington, 
the President sent it to Congress for consideration. May 
13, 1846, Congress declared that war existed " by the act 
of the Republic of Mexico." Ten million dollars was 
appropriated, and the Presicient was authorized to accept 
fifty thousand volunteers. The war excitement rose high 
in the country, and over 200,000 volunteers offered their 
services. The Whigs opposed the declaration of war, for 
they believed that the war existed by the act of President 
Polk, and not by act of the Republic of Mexico. But 
they voted for the appropriations, because they considered 
that the American troops had been sent into danger by 
the President, and must be rescued. In New England 
there were hardly any volunteers, and the war was looked 
on with great disfavor. 



1846J CALIHORNIA AND NEIV MEXICO 315 

(3) Operations on the Pacific. 

528. The Mexican Territory, at the opening of the war, 
included what are now the States of Cahfornia, Utah, and 
Nevada, the Territories of Arizona and New Mexico, and 
parts of Colorado and Wx'oming;. Mexico had done 
hardl}' anything to settle this region, and it was little 
more than a wilderness. No one suspected that it con- 
tained a wealth of gold, silver, and other minerals; but it 
was known to be fertile, and it contained the finest harbor 
on the coast, San Francisco Bay. When war became 
probable, preparations were made to conquer it, b\' send- 
ing a fleet to the Pacific coast. 

529. California and New Mexico. — California was taken 
in the summer of 1 846 by the fleet under Commodores 
Sloat and Stockton, aided by Fremont, who had moved 
into California from his explorations in Oregon (§ 503). 
The towns of San Francisco, Monterey, and Los Angeles 
were captured with little resistance ; and before the end 
of the \'ear all California was under American control. 
The Mexicans rose once in revolt, but were finally over- 
thrown, early in 1847, ''"i ^'''e battle of San Gabriel, near 
Los Angeles. New Mexico was seized, during the same 
summer, by an overland expedition from Fort Leaven- 
worth, under General S. \V. Kearney. Kearney, \\\\\\ a 
little army of about 1,800 men, crossed the plains, cap- 
tured Santa Fe, and New Mexico passed into American 
control. He then set off for California, leaving Colonel 
Doniphan in command. Doniphan left a force at Santa 
Fe to hold New Mexico, and moved south with the rest 
of his force into Mexico. Two sharp and successful 
battles against superior numbers gave him possession of 
the city of Chihuahua and the country around it. But the 
time for which his men were enlisted had expired, and he 



3l6 TEXAS AND THE MEXICAN IV A R [1846 

could advance no farther. He therefore turned aside into 
Texas, and thence to New Orleans, where he discharged 
his troops. 

530. Acquisition of Territory. — The result of these 
movements was that all the territory named above (§ 528) 
was in possession of the United States. It was believed 
in the United States that Americans could make a far 
better use of all this territory than the Mexicans had ever 
done, and that it would be an excellent thing for the 
territory and for the United States if the conquest were 
retained. It was therefore decided to keep it at the 
end of the war, if possible, but to pay Mexico for it 
(§ 543)- ^11 the following battles of the war were fought 
in Mexico, for the purpose of keeping the Mexicans away 
from the conquered territory, and forcing them to make 
a peace. 

(4) Operations in Northern Mexico. 

531. Monterey. — In the autumn of 1846, Taylor, with 
about 6,000 men, moved forward into Mexico from Mata- 
moras (§ 526). The main Mexican force, nearly twice as 
large as Taylor's, took up a position in Monterey, a city 
difficult to attack and strongly fortified. The Americans 
were obliged to storm the walls, and then to carry on a 
desperate struggle within the town. Many of the streets 
had to be cleared of the enemy by fighting from house to 
house, or by breaking down the walls between the houses, 
for the streets were barricaded or commanded by artillery. 
In four days the work was done, and the Mexican army 
surrendered. At Monterey, Ta)'lor was joined by 
General Wool, with 3,000 men. Wool had set otit from 
San Antonio, in Texas, to attack Chihuahua; but the 
expedition had been given up. 



1847] BUENA VISTA 317 

532. Taylor's Position became very unsafe before the 
end of the year. He had pressed on beyond Monterey 
as far as Saltillo, when many of his best men and officers 
were taken from him to strengthen General Scott in cen- 
tral Mexico (§ 534). He then had less than 5,000 men, 
most of them new recruits ancl poorly disciplined, and 
was forced to give up any farther advance. Santa Anna 
(§ 506) was now again at the head of the Mexican 
Government; and he seized this opportunity to march 
against Taylor with over 20,000 men. In spite of the 
tremendous odds against him, Taylor marched toward his 
enemy until he found a battle-ground that suited him at 
Buena Vista, and there waited. The Mexican army 
reached him February 22, 1847, '^^'^^ battle was joined 
next day, 

533. Buena Vista. — Taylor had placed his army at the 
upper end of a long and narrow pass in the mountains, 
with high cliffs on one side and deep ravines on the other, 
so that the Mexicans could not pass him, but must attack 
him in front. All day long the Mexicans charged up the 
pass ; but their charges were beaten steadily back, and at 
nightfall they were forced to retreat. Northeastern 
Mexico was thus left in the hands of the Americans, and 
there was no further serious fighting in that quarter. 
Taylor soon afterward returned to the United States, 
where he was honored as the hero of the war, and was 
elected President the next year (§ 548). 

(5) Operations in Central Mexico. 

534. A Change of Plan had been decided upon by the 
authorities at Washington. General Winfield Scott, the 
oldest of the American generals, was to be sent with 
a selected force, in more than 150 vessels, to attack 



3^^ 



TEXAS AND THE MEXICAN M^AR 



[1847 



Vera Cruz, from \\hich point was the shortest road from 
the coast to the city of Mexico. If he could capture 

the capital, he was to 
^ hold it until the Mexicans 

were willing to make 
peace. All the other 
American armies were 
merely to hold what they 
had already gained. All 
the fighting by Scott's 
army, which ended the 
war, took place in 1847. 
535. Vera Cruz was at- 
tacked early in March. 
Scott landed before the 
city with 12,000 men; 
and, after a bombard- 
ment of nine days, the 
city and its great fort of 
San Juan de Ulloa, the 
strongest in Mexico, surrendered. The army prepared 
for an immediate march toward Mexico, for the coast of 
Vera Cruz was so hot and sickly that it would have been 
dangerous for an army to remain there during the summer 
months. The navy took possession of the Mexican ports 
on the coast, and collected the customs duties for the 
benefit of the United States. 

536. Cerro Gordo. — Soon after leaving Vera Cruz, the 
road to Mexico begins to rise, and abounds in mountains 
and narrow passes, v/hich are natural fortifications. At 
one of these passes, called Cerro Gordo, near Jalapa, 
Santa Anna had collected an army of about 12,000 men. 
Early in April, Scott's army, now numbering but 9,000 
men, reached Cerro Gordo, and attacked it. The battle 




WiNFiELD Scott. 






I'l M.l. 


C' 


\ 




1 




.l:.l:i|,:.- 


. ( 


:x 


"r.lo 


1 


PUFBLA 






) 






ATAPETi, 






-..] 










\ 





Scott's March to Mexico. 



1847] THE MARCH TO MEXICO 319 

was a complete victor}- for the Americans : fi\'c Mexican 
generals and 3,000 prisoners were captured, and the rest 
of the Mexicans were pushed into headlong retreat. 

537. The March to Mexico met \\ith little further resistance 
until August. Scott 

passed on through Jala- 
pa to Puebla. As this 
was high, cool, and 
more healthy ground, he 
kept his army here dur- 
ing the summer, waiting 
for reinforcements. 
Santa Anna, also, was 
busily collecting troops 
for the final struggle. 

538. The Valley of Mexico. — In August, with 11,000 
men, Scott again set out, and reached the edge of the 
valley of Mexico without a battle. Before him la}- the 
valley, like a great bowl sunk into the mountains. In 
the middle of it was Mexico, a cit}- of 200,000 inhabitants, 
surrounded by strong walls and extensive lakes ; and 
before reaching it, the little American army was to capture 
many strongholds, and disperse a Mexican army of three 
times its own number. So many forts had been built on 
the regular roads that the Americans cut a new road 
around them for themselves, and came into the valley at 
an undefended point. 

539. A Day of Victories. — Scott's army moved down the 
mountain-side to a point about ten miles from the city. 
Here the fighting began, and in a single day (August 20) 
five victories were won. (i) Before sunrise the main 
American force stormed the fortified camp of Contreras, 
taking but 17 minutes to do the work. (2) A little later 
in the day, another division stormed the fortified village 



320 TEXAS AND THE MEXICAN IV AR [1847 

of San Antonio. (3) About the same time, one division 
stormed one of the fortified heights of Cherubusco, and 
(4) another division stormed the other. (5) While these 
assaults were being made, Santa Anna moved out of the 
city to assist his garrisons. The American reserve force 
attacked him, beat him, and chased him up to the walls 
of the cit}'. Before night, almost the whole Mexicaa 
force was inside of the city of Mexico. 

540. Negotiations for peace were now proposed by Santa 
Anna, to which Scott agreed. They went on for three 
weeks, until Scott found that Santa Anna was only using- 
the time to strengthen the defences of the city. He then 
broke off negotiations, and renewed the war. 

541. Chapultepec, a strong castle perched on the top of 
a very steep hill, was now the principal Mexican strong- 
hold outside of the city. Below it was a smaller fortifica- 
tion called Molino del Rey, which was first captured. 
Nearly a week afterward, the grand assault was made on 
Chapultepec. The Americans had to climb the cliff, and 
then use scaling-ladders to get into the windows of the 
castle. The Mexicans resisted bravely, and even attempted 
to blow up the castle with every one in it; but the men 
who were .to light the trains were shot down as the 
Americans swarmed in, and Chapultepec was captured. 
Immediately afterward, the whole American army moved 
around to a side of the city where no attack had been 
expected ; and before night it had won two of the gates> 
and was inside the Avails. 

542. Capture of Mexico. — During the night, Santa Anna 
fled from the city with the remainder of his army; and in 
the morning of September 14, 1847, Scott's army, now 
reduced to 6,000 men, marched through the main street, 
and raised the flag of the United States over the national 
palace. The end of the war was reached by the fall of 



1848] PEACE 321 

Mexico. There was some fighting by irregular Mexican 
troops, called guerrillas; and the American sick and 
wounded at Puebla beat off a Mexican force which tried 
to besiege them. But the real fighting of the war was 
over, and the only difficulty was to arrange the terms of 
peace. 

(6) Piace. 

543. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. — Conditions of 
peace were not easy to arrange. The United States in- 
sisted that Mexico should give up its northern territory 
(§ 528), as a punishment for having provoked the war. 
Mexico was very unwilling to agree, and it was not until 
February, 1848, that a new Mexican government con- 
sented to make peace on these terms. The treaty of 
peace was called the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, from 
the little town in which it was agreed upon. Mexico was 
to receive $15,000,000 in return for the ceded territory, 
and her debts of $3,000,000, due to American citizens, 
were to be paid for her. The Senate of the United States 
ratified the treaty ; peace was restored ; and the American 
armies evacuated Mexico. 

544. Territorial Additions. — The annexation of Texas, 
the cession by Mexico, and the Gadsden purchase, south 
of the Gila River, for $10,000,000, in 1853, added 
967,45 1 square miles to the United States. This was 
more than the area of the United States in 1783, and 
almost as much as the Louisiana purchase (§ 334). The 
additions gave the United States the form and boundaries 
which are still retained, with the exception of the pur- 
chase of Alaska in 1867 (§ 773). The territorial growth 
of the continental United States may be divided into four 
great divisions: (i) the United States, as left by the 
Revolution, altogether east of the Mississippi, with Florida 



32 2 TEXAS AND THE MEXICAN IV A R [1S4S 

added in 18 19; (2) Louisiana, west of the Mississippi, 
with Oregon added in 1846; (3) Texas and tlie Mexican 
cessions ; and (4) Alaska. Of these, the second was the 
largest, the third next, the first next, and the fourth 
smallest of all. 

545. Slavery. — The Mexican cession brought up again 
the question of slavery in the Territories, which had been 
settled with so much difficulty in 1820 (§418). The 
question was now to be decided over again as to this new 
territory; and the two sections were now so much 
stronger, and so much more in earnest, that a settlement 
w^as much more difficult than in 1,820. The South 
demanded that slavery should be j^ermitted in the new 
territory, since Southern immigrants would not be able to 
settle there unless they were allowed to take their slaves 
with them. The North demanded that slavery should be 
forbidden, since the territory was already free by Mexican 
law (§ 505), and any introduction of slavery would keep 
free-State immigrants from going thither. There was no 
middle ground : free labor and slave labor could not use 
the same territory. It was proposed by some to divide 
the territory by the Missouri Compromise line, the parallel 
of 36° 30', which would reach the Pacific at about the 
middle of California, and to forbid slavery north of the 
line, and allow slavery south of it; but neither party was 
willing to agree to this sacrifice. 

546. The Wilmot Proviso. — In 1846, when it was first 
proposed to make Mexico give up territory, David 
Wilmot, a member of Congress from Pennsylvania, intro- 
duced what was called from him the Wilmot Proviso. It 
appropriated money to buy the territory, provided that 
slavery should not be allowed in it. The South proved 
to be opposed to the proviso ; it never became law ; and 
the new territory was acquired without it. Thus, when 



184S] THF. PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION t>2:^ 

this administration ended, the United States owned a vast 
amount of new territory, without having as yet decided 
whether slavery was to be allowed or forbidden in it. 

547. The Free-Soil Party came into existence in 1848. 
It was composed of former Democrats and Whigs who 
supported the Wilmot Proviso, together with the Aboli- 
tionists, or Liberty party (§ 498). The old parties, the 
Democrats and the Whigs, had Southern members whom 
they were afraid of losing, and they both refused the 
Wilmot Proviso. Thus the ' ' F'ree-soilers ' ' were com- 
pelled to form a new party of their own. 

548. The Presidential Election in 1 848 was decided by 
the new part}'. The Democratic candidates were Lewis 
Cass, of Michigan, for President, and William O. Butler, 
of Kentucky, for Vice-President. The Whig candidates 
were General Zachary Taylor and Millard Fillmore 
(§ 557)- Neither of these parties said anj'thing about 
slavery in the new territory. The Free-soilers proposed 
to forbid slavery in the new territory, and nominated 
ex-President Van Buren (§ 483), and Charles Francis 
Adams, of Massachusetts. The vote for the Free-soil 
candidates was not very large, but it decided the Presi- 
dential election, as in 1844 (§ 515). It took so many 
votes from the Democrats in New York as to give the 
vote of that great State to the Whigs ; and Taylor and 
Fillmore were elected.' 

549. California, lately conquered from Mexico, proved 
to be a treasure-house. Gold was discovered on the 
Sacramento River, early in 1848, just before the treaty 
with Mexico was agreed upon (§ 543). While a saw-mill 
and mill-dam were being constructed, some shining 

' The electoral votes were 163 for Taylor and Fillmore and 127 for Cass 
and Butler (§ 295). If New York's 36 votes had been given to Cass and 
Butler, they would have been elected by 163 votes to 127. 



324 TEXAS AND THE MEXICAN IV AR [1849 

particles were noticed in the sand. They proved to be 
gold, and it was soon found that the soil was rich in the 
metal. No such gold-mines had been seen in the world 
before. Other mines had produced a little gold with a 
great deal of labor : these gave a great deal of gold with 
little labor. The few Americans in California crowded 
to the "diggings "; and lucky finders worked for a few 
weeks or months, and then went home rich, or spent 
their fortunes in San Francisco or New York. 

550. The Gold-fever. — The news of the discovery was 
hardly believed at first in the older settled parts of the 
country; but early in 1849, when California gold was 
brought to the mint at Philadelphia, and was pronounced 
genuine, a great excitement broke out. Men from all 
parts of the country flocked to California: they went by 
steamer to the Isthmus of Panama, crossed it, and sailed 
up the coast to San F'rancisco ; they bought sailing-vessels, 
and went around Cape Horn ; they travelled overland 
across the plains. The fever was not confined to the 
United States, but spread to Europe. Within two years 
there were 100,000 persons in California, and San Fran- 
cisco was a rapidly growing city of 20,000 inhabitants. 

551. The Leading Events of the administrations of 
Harrison, Tyler, and Polk were as follows: 

1841 : Death of Harrison, and succession of Tyler § 500 

Tyler and the Whigs quarrel 501 

1842 : New tariff act passed 501 

Treaty with Great Britain 502 

The Dorr Rebellion .513 

1844 : The first electric telegraph 510 

Copper discovered in Michigan. 512 

Anti-Rent troubles in New York 514 

1845 : Florida admitted to the Union 509 

Texas annexed to the United States 516 

7'cxas admitted to tlie Union 522 

1846 : Iowa admitted to the Union 522 



1849 J LEADING EVENTS 325 

1 846 : Sewing-machine invented §517 

Smithsonian Institution foinulL-tl 519 

Subtreasury system re-established 521 

New tariff act passed 521 

Treaty with Great Britain 523 

War declared against Mexico (Alav 13) 527 

Battle of Palo Alto (INIay 8) '. 526 

Battle of Resaca de la Palma (May 9) 526 

Conquest of California (summer) 529 

Conquest of New Mexico (summer) 529 

Battle of Monterey (September 24) 531 

1847 : Battle of Buena Vista (February 23) 533 

Capture of Vera Cruz (March 27) . 535 

Battle of Cerro Gordo (April 18) 536 

Battle of Contreras (August 20) 539 

Battle of Chapultepec (September 13) 541 

Capture of Mexico (September 14) 542 

1848: Gold discovered in California (January 19) 549 

Treaty of peace signed with Mexico (Feb. 2) 543 

Wisconsin admitted to the Union 522 

1849 : The " gold-fever " 550 

Topics for Further Study. 

1. Fremont's explorations. 

2. Early history of Texas. 

3. Causes of the Mexican war. 

4. Geography of the Mexican cession. 

5. Life in a California mining-camp. 

6. Overland routes to California. 

Supplementary Reading. 

Sources. — MacDonald's Select Documents gives the treaties 
of 1842 and 1846 with Great Britain (Nos. 70 and 74), the 
resolution for the annexation of Texas (No. 71), Polk's war 
message and the war act (Nos. 72 and 73), the independent 
treasury act of 1846 (No. 75), and Giddings's slavery resolu- 
tions (No. 69). The text of the Wilmot proviso is in ibid.^ 
p. 378. The party ])latforms are in Stanwood's History of the 
Presidency. 

Narrative Accounts. — The general authorities remain as in 
Chap. XV., with the addition of Tyler's Letters and Times of 



326 TEXAS AND THE MEXICAN IV A R [1849 

//le Tylers, Curtis's Buchanan, Pierce's Sumner, and Nicolay 
and Hay's Lincoln. H. H. Bancroft's Oregon, California, 
Mexico, and North I\lexica7i Slates and Texas are the most 
elaborate special histories. On the Mexican war see Jay's 
Mexican War and Ripley's War with Mexico. Much of the 
period is traversed by works on the later slavery contests 
(Chapters XVII. and XVIII.). 

Illustrative Literature. — Dickens's Martin Chuzzlewil and 
American Notes ; Hawthorne's Blithedale Romance ; Lucy G. 
Morse's Rachel Stanwood ; Amelia E. Barr's Remember the 
Alamo; Cooper's Redskins ; Lowell's Biglow Papers ; F. Bret 
Harte's Tales 0/ the Argonauts ; Dana's Two Years before the 
Mast , Edward Eggleston's The Gray sons. 



CHAPTER XVII 

THE STRUGGLE FOR SLAVE TERRITORY 

1849-1857 

(I) Taylor's and Fillmore's Administrations: 1849-53 

Zachary Taylor, La., Pres. Millard Fillmore, N. Y., Vice-Pres. and Pres. 




Zachary Taylor. 



Millard Fillmore. 



552. Sectional Feeling. — The story of the years from 
1849 to 1857 is one of growing separation of feehng 

327 



328 THE STRUGGLE FOR SLAWE TERRITORY [1849 

between the sections. The sections were different, from 
the fact that slavery was dead in the North, while it was 
in full vigor in the South. The men who owned slaves 
in the South were not a large part of its population: ^ but 
they were the richest, ablest, and most influential men of 
their section, and were very apt to consider any attack 
upon slavery as an attack upon the South. The great 
increase of railroads and of other kinds of industry in 
which more than one State was interested had made the 
people of the North learn to think of the Union mainly 
as one country, from which no State had a right to with- 
draw. In the South, where slavery prevented the 
development of any such kinds of industry, the notions of 
State sovereignty and of the right of secession were still 
sincerely held. All through these twelve years, those 
who owned slaves were becoming more and more angry 
at successive attacks upon slavery, and more and more 
anxious to induce their States to secede. Much as the 
people of the South loved the idea of State sovereignty, 
however, they loved the Union more ; and with the 
greatest difficulty they were finally brought to agree to 
the attempt to secede. Thus this period runs into war 
between the sections; for it was found at last that the 
people of the North were willing to fight rather than 
permit the country to be broken in pieces. 

553. The Situation. — From the very beginning of 
Taylor's term of office most of the country's difficulties 
were mixed up, in one way or other, with the matter of 
slavery. In the summer of i 849, the people of California, 
being troubled with a great many lawless immigrants, 
and unwilling to wait for Congress to give them a Terri- 
torial government, formed a State constitution of their 

' Only about 200,000 persons out of nearly 10,000,000: or about one in 
every fifty. 



1850] THE COMPROMISE OF iSjo 329 

own, and applied for admission ; but this constitution for- 
bade slaver}', and many Southern members were therefore 
determined to resist the admission of the new State. 
Texas claimed a part of New Mexico, and was preparing 
to send troops to enforce the claim. The North com- 
plained of the selling of slaves in the national capital, and 
the South complained that the laws for the return of run- 
away slaves were disobeyed or resisted in the North. 
Utah and New Mexico needed Territorial governments: 
but the North controlled one House of Congress and 
the South the other, and the two could not agree as 
to whether slavery should be allowed or forbidden in 
them. 

554. The Omnibus Bill, — Clay had already shown 
peculiar skill in settling difficulties of this kind. He had 
contrived the Missouri Compromise in 1820 (§418), and 
the compromise tariff in 1833 (§ 478). He was now in 
the Senate, and set himself to arrange a third compro- 
mise. In May, 1850, all the matters above stated were 
referred to a committee of which he was chairman. This 
committee brought forward a general plan of settlement, 
covering in one proposed measure so many of the points 
in dispute that the bill was commonly called the Omnibus 
Bill. One by one the various parts were passed and 
became laws in September; and they are called, together, 
the Compromise of 1850. 

555. The Compromise of 1850 included five parts. (i) 
California was admitted without slavery. (2) Texas was 
to receive $10,000,000 for giving up her claims to New 
Mexico. (3) The rest of the Mexican cession, outside 
of California, was to be divided into two Territories, Utah 
(including Nevada) and New Mexico (including Arizona) ; 
and slavery was neither forbidden nor permitted in them. 
(4) Slavery was still to be permitted in the District of 



33° THE STRUGGLE FOR SL/IVE TERRITORY [1S50 

Columbia, but there was to be no buying or selling of 
negroes. (5) A new fugitive-slave law was passed. 

556. The Fugitive-Slave Law provided for the arrest of 
runaway slaves in the Northern States by United States 
officers. If a person was arrested as a runaway, his testi- 
mony was not to be taken ; and for this reason there were 
cases of great harshness, and arrests and convictions of 
persons who probably never had been slaves. As soon 
as the law ^ began to be enforced, it excited the only 
strong opposition that met any part of the Compromise of 
1850. The Abolitionists had always considered slavery 
" a sin against God and a crime against man." Others, 
who had thought little about the matter, were brought to 
the same opinion by the cases of severity in the chase 
after runaway slaves in the North. Nothing had yet done 
so much to increase the number of antislavery men in the 
North as this new fugitive-slave law. 

557. Death of Taylor. — While the Compromise of 1850 
was still under discussion, President Taylor died, and 
Vice-President P'illmore became President in his stead. 
Taylor was a simple and honest soldier, who was com- 
monly called ' ' Rough and Ready ' ' by his men and by 
the people; and he was greatly regretted. But there 
was no such quarrel between Congress and Fillmore as in 
Tyler's case (§ 501). 

558. A Change of Leaders marks this administration. 
During its four years. Clay, Webster, Calhoun, Polk, and 
Taylor died ; and a number of less prominent leaders 
either died or left public life. There appeared in Congress 
a number of able antislavery leaders, the most prominent 
being Charles Sumner, of Massachusetts, William H. 
Seward, of New York, and Salmon P. Chase, of Ohio. 
There had been antislavery men in Congress before ; but 
none of them, excepting John Ouincy Adams and John P. 



SSo] 



RESULTS OF THF. COMPROMISF. 



3,V 




Salmon P. Chase. 



Ilalc, of New I lampshirc, were as able as tliese new men. 
There were new Southern leaders also, who were very 
warm in tlieir support of slav- 
ery, Jefferson Davis (§ 614) 
being one of the most promi- 
nent. 

559. Results of the Com- 
promise. — Most people were 
content with the Compromise, 
except as to the Fugitive- 
Slave Law. But it was really 
an unfortunate settlement. It 
was a public recognition of 
the fact that there were now 
two sections in the United 
States, instead of one nation ; 
and from this time it w^as more and more difficult to make 
laws which were satisfactory to both sections. 

560. Change of Parties. — Until this time, there had been 
Northern and Southern Democrats, and Northern and 
Southern Whigs. Many of the Northern Whigs were not 
inclined to support slavery; and therefore many of the 
Southern Whigs began to leave their former party, and 
vote and act with the Democrats. The result was that 
the Southern portion of the Democratic party was steadily 
growing stronger, while the Whig party went to pieces 
after the next Presidential election, leaving for about two 
years only one great party, the Democratic party. All 
this meant, of course, that even the parties were becom- 
ing sectional. 

561. The Population of the United States in 1850 was 
23,191,876, an increase of 6,000,000 since 1840 (§490). 
Railroads, telegraphs, steamers, banks, and commerce 
were increasing as rapidly as the population. Prosperity 



332 THE STRUGGLE FOR SLAVE TERRITORY [1852 

was universal ; but the only important new direction it 
had yet taken was the gold production of California. 

562. A Pacific Railroad, to connect California to the 
Eastern States, was evidently needed; but there were 
many difficulties in the way of it. Between Missouri and 
California the whole country was a wilderness, where 
railroad-building would be extremely expensive. Private 
persons could not build without help from Congress; 
and Congress, in 1853, ordered surveys to be made, in 
order to find passes for the road through the Rocky 
Mountains. The work was not begun until nearly ten 
years later (§ 783). 

563. The Presidential Election in 1852 put an end to the 
Whig party. The Democratic candidates for President 
and Vice-President were Franklin Pierce, of New Hamp- 
shire, and William R. King, of Alabama. The Whig 
candidates were General Winfield Scott (§ 534), and Wil- 
liam A. Graham, of North Carolina. The Free-soil can- 
didates were John P. Hale, of New Hampshire, and George 
W. Julian, of Indiana. The vote for the Free-soil can- 
didates was less than in 1848. Many of the Northern 
Whigs disliked the Fugitive-Slave Law, and refused to 
vote because their convention approved it. Many of the 
Southern Whigs had left their party. The Whigs thus 
lost votes on both sides, and Pierce and King were 
elected, carrying all but four States.^ 

' There were 254 electoral votes for Pierce and King, and 42 for Scott and 
Graham (§ 295). Some attempts were made to revive the Whig party, but 
they did not succeed. It was commonly said that the Whig party was killed 
by attempting to swallow the Fugitive-Slave Law. 



853] 



FRANKLIN PIERCE 



ZZ2, 



(11) Pierce's Administration: 1853-7 



Franklin Pierce, N. H., President. 



Wm. R. King, Alabama, Vice-President. 



(i) Internal Affairs. 

564. Exhibitions. — In 1851, there had been held at 
London a "World's Fair," the first of the great exhibi- 
tions of arts and manufac- 
tures which have since 
become so common. 
American inventions had 
taken a high place in it. 
In 1853, a similar exhibi- 
tion was opened at the 
Crystal Palace, a large 
structure of glass and iron, 
on Reservoir Square,^ in 
New York City. 

565. Clearing-houses. — 
The banking business in 
New York City had b)- this 
time grown so large that 
in 1853 a clearing-house 
was opened there. Its 
business is to balance daily 
the accounts of the different 
banks with one another, so 
as to avoid the trouble of paying large sums of money 
back and forth. In the clearing-house, each bank ex- 
changes the checks it holds against other banks for their 
checks against it, pa}'ing or receiving only the difference 




Franklin Pierce. 



Now Brvant Park. 



334 THE STRUGGLE FOR SLAVE TERRITORY [1S53 

in money. Institutions of tliis kind have since been opened 
in other cities ; and the business of the New York City 
clearing-house has grown to be the largest in the world. 
566. Roads and Bridges. — The condition of the ordinary 
roads of the country, though bad enough, was now far 
better than it had been thirty years before; and it has 
been improving ever since. The growth of the railroad 
system had forced the country to attend to the build- 
ing of bridges, and particularly of suspension-bridges. A 
bridge of this kind had been thrown over the Niagara 
River with much difficulty in 1848. Since then they had 
increased in number; and in 1856 the first of them over 
the Mississippi River was erected at Minneapolis. The 
American suspension-bridges are now exceedingly numer- 
ous and among the most beautiful of their class. ^ 



(2) Foreign Affairs. 

567. Naturalization. — A person born and living in a 
country owes obedience to its government and is said to 
be one of its subjects. When he changes his residence 
to another countr}% and declares that he chooses that for 
his own in future, he is said to become its subject by 
naturalization, and then he ceases to owe obedience to 
the country in which he was born. This right of natural- 
ization had always been asserted by the United States, 
and had been one of the causes of the War of 1812, as 
Great Britain would not admit that her subjects could 
become naturalized in the United States (§ 344). The 
growing power of the United States now made it possible 
to support the right effectively. 

' One of the most important, though not the largest, is that over the East 
River, between New York and Brooklyn, finished in 1S83. 



1^54] FORb'lGN AFFAIRS 335 

568. Martin Koszta \\as an Austrian subject by birth. 
He had headed a rebeUion in iVustria, had been defeated, 
and had then taken steps to become a naturahzed Ameri- 
can citizen. In 1853, the Austrians caught him in Asia 
Minor, and pLaced him on board a frigate, claiming that 
he was still an Austrian subject. Thereupon a United 
States war-vessel ranged up alongside of the Austrian 
vessel, threatened to fire on her, and compelled her to 
give Koszta up. Austria complained, but the American 
Government supported its officer and gave him a medal. 
Since then, foreign governments have not denied that 
their subjects might become American citizens by i>atural- 
ization, and thus cease to owe obedience to their former 
governments. 

569. Japan had hitherto refused to have any dealings 
with foreign nations. In 1854, Commodore M. C. Perry, 
with an American fleet, pushed his way into Japan, and 
induced its government to agree to a commercial treaty. 
Japan has since gone on rapidly in the road to an accept- 
ance of modern civilization, and is now recognized as one 
of the most active and progressive of modern States. 

570. Cuba. — Filibustering expeditions against the Span- 
ish possessions in the West Indies were attempted during 
this period. Their object was to conquer Cuba, and then 
obtain its admission to the Union as a slave State. Such 
expeditions are against the laws of the United States, and 
they had to be begun secretly. They were all failures, 
and some of their leaders were executed by the Spanish 
authorities. The American Government offered to buy 
Cuba from Spain, but Spain refused to sell it. In 1854, 
the three leading American ministers in Europe met at 
Ostend, in Belgium, and issued a circular, or general 
letter. It claimed that the possession of Cuba was a 
necessity for the United States. Many persons in Europe 



33^ THE STRUGGLE FOR SLA^E TERRITORY [1854 

and America considered it a threat to attack Cuba, and 
blamed the ministers for issuiner it.^ 



(3) Slavery and Politics. 

571. Slavery had now spht the great rehgious denomi- 
nations, excepting the Episcopahans and CathoHcs, into 
Northern and Southern churches. It had spht the Whig 
party into two parts (§ 560). It had formed two sections 
which were every year becoming more opposed to each 
other. Every one could see that there were signs of ter- 
rible danger to the country, though no one could see 
exactly in what quarter a rupture might first occur. 

672. The American Party sprang up during this period, 
to take the place of the Whig party ; but it lived only for 
a few years. Its members were sworn not to tell any- 
thing of its proceedings, and they were therefore often 
called "Know Nothings." The party tried to bring in 
a new question, instead of the dangerous question of 
slavery. Troubles in Europe had enormously increased 
the immigration into the United States, and many of the 
immigrants were very ignorant men. The American 
party wished to prevent foreign-born citizens from hold- 
ing office, and from voting, except after a very long resi- 
dence. It came to an end soon after the Presidential 
election of 1856 (§ 582). 

573. New Territories. — The Democratic party had been 
kept together in 1850 by the agreement that Congress 
should neither forbid nor permit slavery in the new Terri- 
tories of Utah and New Mexico, but should leave their 
people to settle the matter (§555). In 1854, it was pro- 

' William Walker, a Southerner, bct^an his filibustering expeditions against 
Central America during this period. They continued until i860, when he 
was captured and shot by a Central American government. 



1854] KANSAS-NEBRASKA ACT 337 

posed to form Territorial governments for Kansas and 
Nebraska. Congress had " forever " forbidden slavery in 
the region in 1 820, when Missouri was admitted as a slave 
State (§ 418). But Stephen A. Douglas, of Illinois, and 
other new Democratic leaders, thought that the Compro- 
mise of 1850 had changed all this, and that Congress was 
bound to act in the case of Kansas and Nebraska as it had 
done in the case of Utah and New Mexico. 

574. Kansas-Nebraska Act. — Douglas therefore put into 
the bill a declaration that Congress had had no right to 
forbid slavery in this region in 1820; that slavery was 
now neither forbidden nor allowed in these Territories; 
and that their people were to settle the matter. In this 
form the Kansas-Nebraska Act was passed, by the votes 
of Northern and Southern Democrats and Southern 
Whigs, and became law in 1854. It proved to be the 
coming source of danger, and there was thereafter no 
more peace on the subject of slavery ; for it had reopened 
a question which had once been settled, but which could 
not now be settled again peaceably. 

575. In the North there was more excitement and anger 
than had been caused by any previous action of Congress. 
People were reminded that slavery had been forbidden in 
Kansas and Nebraska as part of a bargain between tiie 
North and the South, and it was said that the South, 
having received its share in the admission of Missouri, 
had now broken its agreement as to the rest of the 
Louisiana purchase. It soon came to be believed that 
Southerners cared less for the Union, or for anything else, 
than they did for the extension of slavery; and the North 
began to unite against them. 

576. The Republican Party. — At the first election of 
Congressmen after the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska 
Act, every one in the North who was opposed to the 



33^ THE STRUGGLE FOR SLAVE TERRITORY [1854 

extension of slavery, whether he had been called a 
Democrat, a Whig, a Free-soiler, or an American, 
dropped his former party and voted for candidates opposed 
to the Kansas-Nebraska Act. At first they were called 
' ' Anti-Nebraska Men, ' ' and under this name they elected, 
in the autumn of 1854, a majority of the House of Repre- 
sentatives for the next Congress. Before the new Con- 
gress met, they had taken the name of the Republican 
party, which is still retained. The membership of the 
new party was mainly of former Northern Whigs, with a 
smaller number of former Democrats. It was confined 
to the Northern States, and had no members in Southern 
States, except in Missouri, among the German settlers, 
and in western Virginia, which had been largely settled 
by Ohio people. 

577. In the South the feeling was as much astonishment 
as anger. People there were so accustomed to slavery 
that they could see no reason for this excitement in the 
North ; and they concluded that it had been contrived by 
new men, who wanted only to get into power. They 
felt that the South was attacked without reason ; and 
Southerners of all parties began to unite against the North 
as against a common enemy. 

578. The Struggle for Kansas began at once. Money 
was raised in the North to fit out parties of immigrants, 
who were to settle Kansas and by their votes make it first 
a free Territory and finally a free State. In the same 
way. Southern parties were fitted out to take slaves to 
Kansas, and by their votes to make it first a slave Terri- 
tory and finally a slave State. In such a struggle the 
South was at a disadvantage, for no man liked to take to 
Kansas his slaves, which had cost him money, under the 
risk of losing both slaves and money if his side should be 
beaten. So it happened that the Southern parties were 



1 85 6] THE CONFLICT IN KANSAS 339 

chiefly young men, who went to Kansas for excitement's 
sake; while the Northern \:)Zi.vi\c?> wavQ bona fide settlers, 
who went to stay and to make homes for themselves and 
their children. As very few of the Southern parties took 
slaves with them, one miLjht suppose that there was little 
or no reason for quarrel between the settlers from the two 
sections. Quarrels arose because the settlers from each 
section voted together for one object, claimed to have 
won a victory, and attempted to force the other party to 
submit. In the end, the Northern immigrants completely 
outnumbered their opponents, and made Kansas a free 
State after a five years' struggle. 

579. The Conflict in Kansas. — The road to Kansas from 
the Northern States went across the slave State of 
Missouri. The people of western Missouri refused to 
allow free-State parties to cross their State into Kansas, 
and forced them to turn back. When the first election- 
day came, parties of men from Missouri moved into 
Kansas, voted, and made it a slave Territory. Then the 
free-State parties took the roundabout road through Iowa, 
entering Kansas from the north ; and the struggle in the 
Territory itself began. The Southern settlers formed one 
government, the Northern settlers formed another; and 
each considered the opposite party rebels against a lawful 
government. As each side attempted to put its laws into 
execution, and was resisted by force, the struggle soon 
became an open war. Men were shot; parties of immi- 
grants were robbed and dispersed ; and towns were 
plundered and burned. Small armies, with cannon, were 
formed on both sides; and the newspapers all over the 
country were filled with news from Kansas. The Presi- 
dent sent out one governor after another; but none of 
them could do much to keep order until the free-State 
settlers became so numerous that their opponents gave up 



340 



THE STRUGGLE FOR SLAVE TERRITORY 



[1856 



the struggle. This did not take place until after the end 
of this administration, about 1858. 

580. The Debates in Congress were of the angriest sort. 
Duels were threatened, and many members regularly 
carried pistols or knives, expecting to be attacked by 
some of their opponents. The Republicans usually con- 
trolled the House of Representatives, while the Democrats 
controlled the Senate; and many laws failed to be passed, 
for want of agreement between the two branches of Con- 
gress. Kansas had formed a State constitution, forbidding 
slavery, and applied for admission, with the support of the 
Republicans ; but the Senate refused to admit it. 

581. Assault on Sumner. — Sumner was one of the most 
effective Republican speakers in Congress ; and many of 

his speeches were very 
unpleasant to Southern 
members. In 1856, he 
made a violent speech in 
the Senate which reflected 
severely upon one of the 
South Carolina Senators. 
Thereupon the Senator's 
nephew, Preston S. 
Brooks, a South Carolina 
representative, entered 
the Senate chamber, at- 
tacked Sumner unex- 
pectedly, and beat him 
with a cane so cruelly tliat 
his life was despaired of. This scandalous affair added 
fuel to the flame, for it shocked the North, while it was 
not disapproved at the South. 

582. The Presidential Election in 1856 was remarkable 
for the sudden increase of the new Republican party. 




Charles Sumner. 



185^0 THE ELECTION OF iSs6 341 

The Democratic candidates were James Buchanan and 
John C. Breckinridge. The Republican candidates were 
John C. Fremont, of California, and William L. Dayton, 
of New Jersey. The American, or "Know-Nothing," 
candidates were ex-President Fillmore and Andrew J. 
Donelson, of Tennessee. One State (Maryland) voted 
for the American candidates ; eleven of the free States 
voted for the Republican candidates ; and Buchanan and 
Breckinridge received the votes of the remaining nineteen 
States, and were elected.^ 

583. The Result of the Election was anything but pleas- 
ant to the South. Up to this time, no open opponent of 
slavery had ever received the vote of any State in a presi- 
dential election : now an antislavery party, not yet two 
years old, had carried nearly all the free States, and had 
come dangerously near electing its candidates. It is 
quite certain that secession would not have taken place, 
even if Fremont and Dayton had been elected, for the 
South was not ready for it. But there was already a 
strong party of secessionists in the South (§611); and 
they spent the next four years in trying to prepare the 
South for secession in i860, if the Republicans should 
then carry all the free States and elect tlieir candidates. 

684. The Leading Events of the administrations of Tay- 
lor, Fillmore, and Pierce are as follows: 

1850: Death of Taylor, and succession of Fillmore § 557 

Compromise of 1850 555 

Admission of California 555 

Fugitive-Slave Law passed 556 

1853 : Pacific Railroad surveys ordered 562 

Crystal Palace Exhibition 564 

The Koszta case 568 

'There were 296 electoral votes: of these, Buchanan and Breckinridge 
received 174, Fremont and Dayton 114, and Fillmore and Donelson 8. 



342 THE STRUGGLE FOR SLAVE TERRITORY [1856 

1854 : The Japan treaty § 569 

The Kansas-Nebraska Act 574 

1855 : Rise of the Republican party 576 

The struggle in Kansas begun 578 

1856: Assault on Sumner 581 

Topics for Further Study. 

1. Slavery in the District of Columbia. 

2. Personal-liberty laws. 

3. Early railroads to the West. 

4. Emigrant-aid societies. 

5. John Brown in Kansas. 

Supplementary Reading. 

Sources. — MacDonald's Select Docuiiients gives important 
extracts relating to the Compromise of 1850 (Nos. 78-83) and 
the Kansas-Nebraska Act (Nos. 85-88), and the text of the 
Ostend manifesto (No. 89). 

Narrative Accounts. — To the larger comprehensive works 
is now to be added Rhodes's History of tlie United States frorn 
the Compromise of 18^0. General works of importance, besides 
those previously mentioned, are Julian's foshua R. Giddings, 
Birney's fames G. Birney and his Times, Coleman's fohi f. 
Crittenden, Hart's Sa/fnon P. Chase, C. F. Adams's Richard H. 
Dana, Wise's Seven Decades of the Utiion, Sargent's Public Men 
and Events, and the writings and speeches of Sumner, Seward, 
and Chase. Important aspects of the slavery struggle are also 
set forth in McDougall's Fugitive Slaves, Hurd's Law of Free- 
dom and Bo7idage, Pike's First Blotvs of the Civil War, Sanborn's 
fohn Brown, Spring's Kansas, Thayer's Kansas Crusade, Blaine's 
T'wenty Years of Congress, May's Recollections of the Antislavery 
Conflict, and J. F. Clarke's Antislavery Days. 

Illustrative Literature. — H. B. Stowe's The Minister's 
Wooing; G. W. Curtis's Potiphar Papers and Prue and I; Lucy 
Larcom's A New England Girlhood; Tincker's House of Yorke. 



CHAPTER XVIII 



THE EVE OF THE CIVIL WAR 

Buchanan's Administration: 1857-61 

James Buchanan, Pa., President. John C. Breckinridge, Ky., Vice-President. 

(i) Internal Affairs. 

585. A Financial Panic occurred in 1857, brought on in 
part by too rapid building of railroads in places where 
they did not pay ex- 
penses. Railroads had 
been built in parts of the 
country where there were 
but few inhabitants, but 
where it was hoped that 
the railroads would bring 
settlers. The settlers 
did not come rapidly, and 
the railroads were oper- 
ated at a loss. Men who 
needed the money which 
they had put into the rail- 
roads began to offer their 
shares at lower prices. 
As prices fell, others be- 
came frightened and tried 
to sell; and, just as in 
1837 (§ 485), a panic 
ensued. It probably 
caused more loss than in 1837, but the country was now 
so much richer that the loss was less severely felt. 

343 




JaiMES lilCHANAN. 



344 THE EVE OF THE CIVIL IV/IR [1857 

586. The Mormons (^ 495) had by this time settled in 
Utah, around Salt Lake City. Here they became more 
troublesome than ever, and disobeyed the laws made for 
them by Congress. In 1857, when the President sent a 
new governor to Utah, he sent also a body of troops to 
enforce obedience. The Mormons made ready for resist- 
ance, and succeeded in keeping the troops out on the 
plains through the winter. But in the spring of 1858 
they submitted, and the troops entered Salt Lake City. 
The Mormons, however, continued to be troublesome. 
They had greatly increased in number, and Congress had 
not succeeded in stopping their illegal marriages. 

587. New States. — Minnesota, formed from the Louisiana 
purchase, was admitted as a State in 1858. Part of the 
former Oregon country was admitted as a State under the 
name of Oregon in 1859. Kansas, after repeated applica- 
tions and refusals, was admitted as a State, just at the end 
of this administration (1861), when Southern Senators 
had begun to withdraw (§ 616). 

588. The Census of i860. — The population of the United 
States, by the census of i860, was 31,443,321, an increase 
of over 8,000,000 in ten years. This was the point at 
which the population of the United States, which had 
been nothing 260 years before, at last passed that of the 
mother country; for the population of Great Britain and 
Ireland was but 29,000,000 in 1861. But the increase of 
population in the United States had now become startling. 
Each new census showed an increase of about one third ; 
and these leaps grew longer as the population grew 
larger.^ The census also showed a wonderful prosperity. 
Railroads had increased from nothing in 1830 to a length 
of 31,000 miles, built at a cost of nearly $1,200,000,000, 

1 From 1790 to 1800 this one-third increase was but 1,400,000; from 1850 
to i860 it was 8,250,000. 



1S58] GROIVTH OF 7 HE COUNTRY 345 

almost a clear increase of wealth. In merchant-vessels, 
the country now stood next to Great Britain. In agricul- 
ture, the product was far beyond that of any other country. 
The largest crop, cotton, made 5,000,000 bales of 400 
pounds each. All the property of the country was now 
roughly valued at $16,000,000,000: and yet this was 
the country on whose shores, 260 years before, Gosnold 
could find nothing but sassafras and a few half-naked 
Indians. 

589. The Map of the United States had changed greatly 
between 1830 and i860, particularly west of Pittsburgh 
(§ 451). Texas and the great Pacific territory had been 
added to it, giving the country an entirely new shape in 
the far West (§ 544). Even in the East there were large 
manufacturing cities, like Lowell and Paterson, which 
were not on most of the maps in 1830. In the West, 
there were many such cases. In 1830, the maps of the 
United States had no such cities as Chicago, Milwaukee, 
or San Francisco; and no such States as Arkansas, 
Michigan, Florida, Texas, Iowa, Wisconsin, California, 
Minnesota, Oregon, or Kansas: all these were the growth 
of thirty years, aided by the railroad. 

590. Mineral Resources. — It had now been found that 
coal was not confined to two or three States; that there 
were great beds of it in most of the new States ; and that 
this continent contained probably as much coal as all the 
rest of the world together. This is highly important, 
because so much work is done nowadays by machinery, 
which needs coal to run it. Gold was not confined to 
California: in 1858, it was found at Pike's Peak, in 
Colorado ; and it has been found since in many other 
parts of the Rocky Mountains, from Idaho to New Mexico. 
In the same year was found a metal new to the United 
States: the Comstock lode of silver was discovered at 



346 THE E^E OF THE CiyiL IVAR [1859 

Virginia City, in Nevada ;i and other mines were soon 
brought to light. Since then, it has been found that this 
Rocky Mountain region is rich in almost every kind of 
mineral. In 1859, wells sunk near Titusville, in north- 
western Pennsylvania, struck a vast underground bed of 
petroleum ; and this at once became a new and large 
source of wealth. It seemed as if nature was generously 
pouring wealth into the lap of this fortunate people. 

591. Patents. — The industry and acuteness of the people 
made good use of their opportunities, and were urged on 
by the patent system. Now that the country had grown 
so populous, a patent on a useful invention might be a 
source of great wealth, for it gave the inventor the profits 
from his invention for a number of years all over the 
country, and also, by treaties, in foreign countries. Thus 
the attention of the people was turned strongly to 
inventions ; the inventions made it easier to produce 
wealth ; and the new wealth urged on further inven- 
tion. 

592. American Literature had passed out of its child- 
hood, and had grown into a vigorous life of its own. The 
writers who had appeared about 1830 (§ 458) had come 
to their full powers, and an increasing number of new 
men were at work with them. Of these new men, it is 
only possible here to name the historian Motley, the poet 
Lowell, and the philosopher P^merson. Much of the in- 
tellectual ability of the country was enlisted in the work 
of writing for the newspapers, which now numbered over 
4,000, sending out nearly 1,000,000,000 copies a year. 
A single American magazine was now issuing 200,000 
copies a month. 

' Tlie discoverer of the Comstock lode is said to have sold it for a few 
drinks of whiskey and a pony : it has since produced hundreds of millions 
of dollars' worth of silver. 




James Rt ssell Lowell 



Ralph Waldo Emerson. 




Francis Parkman. 



John I-othrop Motley. 

{To face p. 346.) 



iS6o] DOMESTIC COMFORT 347 

593. Public Schools and Education. — Public schools had 
become a great feature of the new republic, and for good 
reasons. Immigrants were entering the country in a great 
stream, and all of them who were adult males were 
allowed to vote after a short residence. If they were 
ignorant, it could not be helped, and voting was itself 
something of an education for them ; but it was the busi- 
ness of the State to take care that the children of these 
immigrants should not grow up ignorant. Thus a great 
system of public schools had grown up since 1830 in 
every State. There were now about 1 10,000 of these in 
the whole country; and in them an army of 5,000,000 
pupils were studying daily at State expense. In addition 
to these there were a great number of private schools, 
and over 200 colleges. 

594. The Condition of the Country was everywhere 
different from its condition fifty years before. The farms 
were cultivated far more easily and profitably by improved 
machinery, worked by horses or by steam. New fer- 
tilizers, such as guano, w^ere making old farms produce 
more. Log-cabins and shanties were disappearing, and 
comfortable houses were taking their place. The houses 
contained comforts and conveniences wdiich the richest of 
men could not have bought fifty years before : gas, hot-air 
furnaces, sewing-machines, and inventions of every sort 
to save labor or trouble. There were now few villages 
so small that they were not near a railroad or a telegraph, 
by which their people could go or send easily and quickly 
to any part of the United States. 

595. The Cities had increased in comforts as well as in 
population. The dwellings had grown larger, the stores 
richer, and the streets finer; and the cities themselves 
had taken very much the appearance which they still have, 
although they have since increased greatly in size, and 



348 THE EVE OF THE CIVIL IV AR [i860 

the invention of elevators has caused the erection of very 
much loftier buildings than were possible in 1 860. Great 
water-works brought pure water from a distance, and dis- 
tributed it through the cities. Great parks were opened, 
as breathing-places for the cities : New York City had just 
opened the finest of these, Central Park, and other cities 
were at work in the same direction. Public libraries, like 
the Astor Library in New York City, were appearing. 
Thirty years before, the "watchmen" had walked the 
streets at night with canes and lanterns, and there were 
hardly any arrangements to punish them for going to sleep 
or neglecting their duties. Now the new police system 
had been introduced, with officers to manage it and punish 
neglect or carelessness in the men.^ 

(2) Sla^wrv and Politics. 

596. The South had not shared equally with the North 
in the prosperity of which the census of i860 was so 
pleasant a picture. Plenty of money came into the South 
every year, for its cotton-crop of i860 sold for about $250,- 
000,000; but the money seemed to do less good. It did 
not build up manufactures, railroads, colleges, schools, 
libraries, or the other signs of growth, as in the North. 
Land was worth much less at the South than at the 
North. All the commerce was in Northern vessels; and 
Charleston, which in 1800 was one of the busiest seaports 
on the Atlantic coast, now did hardly any business of 
its own. It was not to be expected that the Southern 
people would be satisfied with such a state of affairs : on 
the contrary, they were exceedingly dissatisfied, and 

' This city ]:)olice system is an Englisli idea. It was introduced in 
London by Sir Robert Peel in 1829; and for this reason the policemen were 
at first often called "peelers." 



i86o] 



THE EFFECTS OF SLAVERY 



349 



J rv-'"^ 



sought long for the cause of their backwardness, aiul the 
remedy. 

597. The Effects of Slavery. — The chief cause is now 
seen by ever)' one to have be»en negro slavery, though the 
South could not see that in 1 860. 
Slaves worked only because 
they were made to do so ; they 
worked slowly, carelessly, and 
stupidly, and were fit for little 
better than to hoe cotton. In 
factories or on railroads they 
were of slight use. The rich 
whites did not need to work ; 
and the poor whites did not wish 
to work, because they had grown 
up in the belief that work was a 
sign of slavery. Here was the 
real reason for the backward- 
ness of the South, compared 
M-ith the North. In the North 
there was a general race for 
work, and everything w'as in active motion, 
there was no great number of persons who really wanted 
to work, and everything stood still. 

598. The Territories. — The South, in i860, could only 
see that everything was going wrong. It was growing 
poorer as the North grew richer, and weaker as the North 
grew stronger. Five new free States had been admitted 
since Texas, the last slave State, had entered the Union ; 
a sixth, Kansas, was demanding admission; and others 
were evidently coming soon. Every new free State made 
the South less influential in both branches of Congress ; 
and, as States are formed from Territories, the South 
came to believe that any refusal to allow slavery in the 




King Cotton. 

In the South 



35° THE EVE OF THE CIVIL IV AR [^857 

Territories was intended to make the South less important 
still. 

599. The Supreme Court of the United States is the 
body to which is given the power to decide whether the 
laws passed by Congress are such as the Constitution 
allows Congress to pass. If it decides that the law in 
question was not permitted by the Constitution, the law 
is said to be unconstitutional, and need not be obeyed, 
for the other courts will not punish those who disobey it. 
In 1820, Congress had forbidden slavery in the Louisiana 
purchase, outside of Missouri (§ 418); but for nearly forty 
years no case had required the Supreme Court to decide 
whether this law of 1820 was constitutional or not. 
Finally, one Dred Scott, a Missouri slave, who had been 
taken by his owner into the territory in which slavery had 
been forbidden, brought suit to be declared free. The 
case came at last before the Supreme Court, and was 
decided in 1857. 

600. The Dred Scott Decision sustained the Southern 
view of slavery in the Territories. The Supreme Court 
decided that negro slaves were not considered by the 
Constitution as persons, but as property; that the object 
of the Constitution was to protect property ; that a slave- 
owner had as much right to take his slaves as to take his 
cattle from one State to another, or to the Territories; 
and that Congress had no power to forbid slavery in the 
Territories. 

601. Effects of the Decision. — The Dred Scott decision 
was not to end the matter, for the North refused to accept 
it. It was believed there that negro slaves were consid- 
ered by the Constitution as "persons held to labor," and 
not as property; and that they were property only by 
State law. The only effects of the decision were to make 
the South more certain that it was right, and to make 



1S59] JOHN BROIVN'S RAID 35i 

the North exceedingly angry with the Supreme Court 
itself. 

602. The Democratic Party, up to this time, had gen- 
erally controlled the Union, and the South had generally 
controlled the Democratic party. Now most of the 
Northern Democrats began to hold back. If they did as 
Southern Democrats wished them to do, and accepted the 
Dred Scott decision, they could not expect to carry any 
more elections in the North. Some of them joined the 
Republican party. Most of them, with Douglas, tried to 
show that the Dred Scott decision did not mean all that 
the Southern Democrats said it meant. And so the 
slavery question, which had split almost everything else, 
was now splitting the Democratic party also (§ 570- 

603. The Fear of Negro Insurrection was always dreadful 
to a Southerner, for it meant the greatest of dangers to 
his wife, his children, and all that was dear to him. No 
general insurrection ever took place, but the people of the 
South were always on guard against it, day and night. 
Fifty years before, when slavery was but a little thing, 
John Randolph, of Virginia, said that, when the fire-bell 
rang at night in a Southern city, every mother trembled 
for her children. In 1859, t'^ere were 4,000,000 slaves 
in the South, and the idea of a general uprising was natu- 
rally far more frightful. 

604. John Brown's Raid. — John Brown had been one of 
the free-State leaders in the Kansas troubles, and had 
grown to have a religious hatred of slavery. In 1859, 
with a few associates, he seized the town of Harper's 
Ferry, which contained the United States arsenal. He 
intended to carry the arms off to the mountains near by, 
and use them to arm the slaves. The telegraph sent the^ 
news through the South, and for a few days a wild excite- 
ment followed. Regular troops and Maryland and Vir- 



352 THE EVE OF THE CIVIL IVAR [i860 

ginia militia soon captured or shot the party; and Brown 
himself, with the survivors, was hanged by the State of 
Virginia. But the South had been too much startled to 
be easily quieted ; and there was a strong feeling of anger 
that the ' ' raid ' ' should have been planned in the North. 



(3) Sectional Division. 

605. Sectional Division — Slavery had by this time set 
the two sections, North and South, completely against 
one another. It had arrayed them in successive conflicts 
with one another until there seemed to be no escape from 
the last and worst of conflicts. Men have tried to find 
explanations of this opposition in differences of climate, 
character, and blood ; but there is not one of these cases 
of opposition which is not more easily explained by the 
treacherous influences of slavery. If Southern leaders 
opposed a protective tariff (§ 436), it was rather because 
slavery prevented manufactures in the South than because 
they were really fond of free trade. If they supported 
State sovereignty eagerly (§475), it was because slavery 
was protected by State laws and power. 

606. The Feeling in the South in i860 was that the 
North had not behaved in a kindly manner. The com- 
plaints were that nearly all the free States had voted for 
candidates of their own at the last election ; that they had 
resisted the Fugitive-Slave Law; that they had tried to 
abolish slavery in the Territories ; that they had begun a 
struggle with the South for the control of Kansas ; that 
they had refused to accept the Drcd Scott decision ; and 
that they had sent John Brown on his raid against the 
South. Much of this was unjust, though part of it was 
true, for the whole current of events, and the Northern 



i86o] THE FEELING IN THE NORTH 353 

current of fccliiifj, were runnini,^ hard against slavery, 
which the South defended. But it was not yet beHeved 
in the South that these complaints were enough to justify 
war. 

607. The Feeling in the North. -People in the North 
were generally too busy to lay any plans against slavery. 
The Abolitionists (§462) had long desired that the slave- 
holding States should secede and rid the country of the 
guilt of slavery; but the Abolitionists were still few in 
number. The great mass of the Northern people had 
gradually come to believe that the South liked slavery 
altogether too well; but they were perfectly willing to 
leave the Southern States to regulate the matter for them- 
selves. Their principal complaint had been that the 
solemn agreement, called the Missouri Compromise, had 
been broken (§ 574); but this had failed to carry slavery 
into the Territories, for Kansas was now practically a free 
State. The only remaining grievance was the Dred Scott 
decision ; and if that was to be carried into effect. Con- 
gress was to protixt slavery in the Territories. This was 
what most of the Southern leaders now demanded, and 
what the Northern people would certainly never consent 
to do. 

608. Parties in i860. — The Democratic party, in i860, 
split into a Northern and a Southern section ; and the 
Republican party and the former American party also 
made nominations. In this election there were thus at 
work four parties. The Republican party nominated 
Abraham Lincoln (§ 620), and Hannibal Hamlin, of 
Maine, for President and Vice-President. Their "plat- 
form," or declaration of principles, declared that it was 
the right and the duty of Congress to forbid slavery in 
the Territories. The Southern Democrats nominated 
John C. Breckinridge and Joseph Lane, of Oregon. Their 



354 THE El^E OF THE CiyiL JVAR [iS6o 

platform declared that it was the ris^^ht and the duty of 
Congress to protect slavery in the Territories, whenever 
a slave-owner took his slaves thither. The Northern 
Democrats nominated Stephen A. Douglas, of Illinois, 
and Herschel V. Johnson, of Georgia. Their platform 
declared that they still believed that the people of each 
Territory ought to control the matter of slavery in that 
Territory; but that they were willing to submit to the 
decision of the Supreme Court. The American party 
nominated John Bell, of Tennessee, and Edward Everett, 
of Massachusetts. Their platform declared that they 
wished only for "the Constitution, the Union, and the 
enforcement of the laws. ' ' This Avas not intended to 
mean much, except that its Southern supporters did not 
wish to go to war in defence of slavery in the Terri- 
tories, and wanted the slavery question dropped out of 
politics. 

609. The Presidential Election in 1 860 resulted in the 
success of the Republicans. No candidates had a majority 
of the popular vote; but Lincoln and Hamlin, who had 
received the largest popular vote, received a majority of 
the electoral votes also, and were elected.^ 



(4) Secession. 

610. South Carolina seems to have been the only 
Southern State which was really anxious to escape from 

1 Lincoln and Hamlin received i8o electoral votes; Breckinridge and 
Lane, 72; Bell and Everett, 39; and Douglas and Johnson, 12. The popii- 
larvote for Douglas was next largest to that for Lincoln, but he carried only 
Missouri and three electoral votes in New Jersey. Lincoln received all the 
electoral votes of the free States, except those of New Jersey, which were 
cast for Douglas. Bell carried Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee; and 
Breckinridge all the other slave States except those three and Missouri. 



I' 



[ 



y « 



i86o" 



THE SECESSIONISTS 



355 



the Union. As soon as Lincoln's election was made 
certain, this State called a State convention, which passed 
an "ordinance of secession," December 20, i860. It 







'jf'f ifi'f5'ff 



f|) liSt \^ 




Secession Hall. 

declared that the Union between South Carolina and 
other States, under the name of the United States of 
America, was at an end ; and that South Carolina was 
now independent. The State then made ready for war. 

611. The Secessionists. — Secession was considered a 
right of the States by most of the Southern States ; but 
in other States than South Carolina the 
people do not seem to have wished to leave 
the Union. They did not wish to secede, 
though they believed in their right to do 
so. But there was a class of secessionists 
in every Southern State who wished to try 
it at once, for they knew that in a few years 
the North would be so much stronger that 
it would be altogether impossible to secede, 
and the right of secession would be gone forever, 
were not a majority, but were active and influential. 




356 



THE Eyn OF THE CIVIL IV^R 



[i860 



612. Arguments for Secession.— In other States than 
South Carohna the secessionists usually urged two argu- 
ments for secession. The first was that it would be dis- 




Jefferson Davis. 



graceful to leave South Carolina to stand alone, and that 
the other slave States ought to support her. Their second 
and stronger argument was that they did not intend to 
leave the Union altogether, but that they could "make 



i86i] THE CONFEDERATE STATES 357 

better terms out of the Union than in it. ' ' Thc}^ argued 
that the North was growing very strong and vcr}- much 
opposed to slavery and to the South ; that now was the 
time to secede and compel the North to give security 
for future good behavior; and that then all the States 
could come quietly and kindly back to the Union. The 
radical secessionists never intended to follow out any such 
plan : they only wished to persuade the voters to call State 
conventions, whose action would bind the State. 

613. The Other Southern States. — In six other Southern 
States, the argument above given induced a majority of 
the voters to elect State conventions, which passed 
ordinances of secession. In this manner the States of 
Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, and Louisiana 
seceded in January, i86i; and Texas did the same in 
February. This was the first ' ' area of Secession " : it 
nov/ consisted of the seven cotton States, those lying south 
of North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas. 

614.* The Confederate States. — The secessionists had 
the game in their own hands when they obtained control 
of the State conventions ; and they at once went on to do 
what they had intended to do from the beginning. With- 
out asking any permission from the voters, the State con- 
ventions sent delegates to Montgomery, in Alabama, and 
the delegates there formed a new government under the 
name of the Confederate States of America. They elected 
Jefferson Davis and Alexander H. Stephens President and 
Vice-President. Jefferson Davis was a graduate of West 
Point, but had left the army and become a cotton-planter 
in Mississippi. lie had commanded a Mississippi rifle- 
regiment in the Mexican war, and subsequently, as a 
Democrat, served in the United States Senate from i 847 
to 1 85 1, and from 1857 to 1861, and as Secretary of War 
during Pierce's administration, 1853-7. Alexander H. 



358 



THE EVB OF THE CIVIL IVAR 



[1861 



Stephens had been a member of the House of Representa- 
tives from 1843 to 1859, joining- the Democratic party in 

1850. Pie was strongly 
opposed to secession in 
I 860 ; but when Georgia 
seceded, he "went with 
his State. " The conven- 
tion also adopted a con- 
stitution and flag, both 
much like those of the 
United States ; and took 
steps to form an army and 
navy. 

615. The Doctrine of 
State Sovereignty thus put 
every man in the South on 
the wrong side, and kept 
him there. Southern voters 
had given their State con- 
ventions power to speak for 
their States; and, even 
when the whole purpose of the secessionists became 
plain, the voters felt bound to "follow their State" 
(§ 475)- Thus the voters of six States, without having 
a word to say in the matter, were made subjects of an 
illegal government; and they were thus fraudulently 
bound to defend it, though it could only exist by warring 
on the United States. 

616. Affairs in the South were all in favor of the seces- 
sionists, h^-en before the different States seceded, their 
authorities seized the forts, arsenals, dock-yards, ships, 
custom-houses, mints, and other property of the United 
States. Wherever there were any United States soldiers, 
they were surrounded and forced to surrender. As soon 




Alexander H. Stephens. 



iS6i] FORT SUMTER 359 

as a State seceded, its citizens who were in the service of 
the United States resigned their commissions and took 
service, first under the State, and then under the Con- 
federacy. Officers of the arnn' from seceding States 
generally resigned : a few, like Scott, held to the Union. 
Officers in the navy did not so generally go with their 
States: some of the foremost naval officers of the United 
States, like I'arragut, were Southerners. Thus, at the 
bombardment of the forts at Port Royal, in South Carolina 
(§ 636). two of the gunboat-captains were South Caro- 
linians; and one of them. Captain Dra\-ton, was firing on 
his own brother, who commanded the forts. With the 
exception of Andrew Johnson, Senator from Tennessee, 
Senators and Representatives from seceding States re- 
signed and went home. Within sixty days, the authority 
of the United States was paralyzed in seven States of the 
Union. Two of the Supreme Court justices were from 
seceding States; but they held to the Union, and gave no 
countenance to secession. 

617. Fort Sumter. ^ — In all the South there were saved 
only the forts near Key West, Fort Pickens at Pensacola, 
and Fort Sumter in Charleston harbor. Earl\- in 1861, 
the South Carolina authorities began to build forts and 
batteries to attack Fort Sumter ; and when a steamei , the 
Star of the IJlst, was sent to carr\' supplies to it, in Jan- 
uary, they fired on her and dro\e her back. This state 
of affairs continued until the end of Buchanan's term of 
office, in March, 1861. Major Anderson, commanding 
P'ort Sumter, was not allowed by his government to fire 
on the forts around him, and they did not allow supplies 
to be brought to him b)' sea. 

618. The Federal Policy. — The Federal Government, 
meantime, did nothing. Congress was in session during 
the winter; but it spent its time in talking about new 



360 THE El^E OF THE CIVIL PVAR [1861 

proposals for compromise. The President was anxious 
to avoid doing anything except to keep the peace until 
the end of his term. The departments at Washington 
contained many clerks who were secessionists, and who 
gave early and useful information to the Southern leaders. 
Seven States had wiped out the authority of the govern- 
ment w^ithin their limits, and had formed a new gov- 
ernment of their own. Between them and the Federal 
Government was a wall of border States, not willing to 
secede, and yet not willing to see the seceding States 
brought back into the Union by force. Affairs wxre in 
this dismal condition when Buchanan's term ended, and 
Lincoln was inaugurated, March 4, 1861. 

619. The Leading Events of Buchanan's administration 
w^ere as follows: 

1857: Dred Scott decision § 600 

Panic of 1857 585 

Mormon troubles 586 

1858: ]\Iinnesota admitted 587 

Gold discovered in Colorado 590 

Silver discovered in Nevada 590 

1859: Oregon admitted 587 

Petroleum discovered in Pennsylvania 590 

John Brown's raid 604 

i860: Lincoln elected President 609 

South Carolina secedes (December 20) 610 

1861 : Six other States secede 613 

Steamer Slar 0/ the West fired on (January 9) . . . . 617 

The Confederate States formed (February 4) 614 

Kansas admitted 587 

Topics for Further Study. 

1. The admission of Kansas. 

2. Slave insurrections. 

3. John Brown's raid. 

4. Lincoln's opinions on slavery. 

5. Comparative resources of the North and the South, from 
the point of view of war between the sections. 



l86l] SUPPLEMENTARY READING 361 

6. The grievances of the South. 

7. Was secession voluntan- ? 

Supplementary Reading. 

Sources. — MacDonald's Select Documents gives a summary 
of the Dred Scott decision (No. 9IJ, extracts from the 
Lecompton constitution (No. 92), the three important compro- 
mise propositions (Nos. 93, 95, and 96), the South Carolina 
ordinance of secession (No. 94), and the constitution of the 
Confederate States (No. 97). Cooper's American Politics, 
bk. I., gives many documents relating to slavery and secession. 

Narrative Accounts. — The principal authorities are the 
same as in Chap. XVII., with the addition, for the Southern 
side, of Helper's Impending Crisis, Stephens's War between the 
States, Jefferson Davis's Rise and Fall of the Co7ifederate Govern- 
ment, and Pollard's Lost Cause. The American Atitiual Cyclo- 
pcedia for 1861 is especially \aluable for reference. 

Illustrative Literature — Longfellow's Poems on Slavery; 
Whittier's Antislavery Poems; H. B. Stowe's Uncle Tom's 
Cabin; T. N. Page's Social Life in Old Virginia and The Old 
South; j\L E. Seawell's Children of Destiny. 



CHAPTER XIX 
THE WAR FOR THE UNION 

Lincoln's Administration: 1861-65 

Abraham Lincoln, 111., President. Hannibai, Hamlin, Me., Vice-President 

(i) Ei'ents of 1S61. 

620. Abraham Lincoln i.s the central figure of this period. 
Born in Kentucky, February 12, 1809, of poor parents, 
he emigrated \vith them to Indiana, and thence to IIHnois, 
where he found work as a farm-hand, rail-sphttcr, and 
Mississippi boatman. By hard work and perseverance, 
he educated himself, became a lawyer, and served as 
Representative in Congress (Whig), 1847-49. In 1858, 
he was nominated by the Republicans for United States 
Senator against Douglas. A series of joint debates 
between the candidates, on the issues of the campaign, 
attracted attention throughout the country; and, though 
Illinois was then a Democratic State, Douglas, the leader 
of the Democrats in the North, barely escaped defeat. 
To the masses of the voters outside of Illinois, however, 
Lincoln was still little known; and when he was elected 
President there was a very wide belief in the North that 
the "rail-splitter" was a reckless and dangerous man. 
In the South, it was even believed that he was a mulatto 
(and Hamlin a full-blooded negro), elected as an insult 
to the South. It was not until his death that people 

363 



}64 



THE IV^R FOR THE UNION 



[iS6] 



began to see that he was one of the wisest, greatest, and 
most kind-hearted men of history, who loved one section 
as well as he did the other, and his whole country more 
than either. 

621. The New Administration began under every sort of 
difficulty. The seven Gulf, or cotton, States were 

-altogether hostile. The slave States north of them were 
opposed to forcing the seceded States to return. Nobody 
felt quite certain that even the Northern States would go 
to war to preserve the Union. President Lincoln and his 
Cabinet were all new men, without experience in manag- 
ing the Federal Government; and this general uncertainty 
added greatly to their difficulties. 

622. Fort Sumter (§617) was almost ready to surrender 
when Lincoln became President, March 4, 1861, for its 
garrison had hardly any provisions left. Larly in April, 




SCALE OF MILES 



'< '4 1 

Fort Sumter and Charleston Harbor. 

the President ordered a fleet to leave New York for 
Charleston, carrying provisions for the fort. As soon as 
this became known, the Confederate batteries were ordered 



.86i] 



IVASHINGTON AND BALTIMORE 



365 



to attack the fort. ^Vftcr a heavy hre of thirty hours, the 
ammunition in the iort \\as ahnost exhausted, and its 
wooden buikliui^s were on lire; and Major Anderson sur- 
rendered the fort and garrison with the honors of war 
(April 13). No one was killed on either side during" the 
fire; but one Federal soldier was killed, and several 




Fort Slm er 

\\ounded, by the explosion of a gun with which the garri- 
son was saluting" the flag" before leaving" for New York. 
The fleet returned to the North, having been unable to 
gi\'e any assistance. 

623. Washington and Baltimore — In the North and 
West, the news of the fall of Fort Sumter roused an ex- 
citement such as had not been known there since the 
Revolution against Great Britain. Political differences 
were dropped, and the whole people was united in support 
of the government. When the President called for 
75,000 volunteer soldiers (April 15), to put down the 
rebellion, four times as many responded. Money and 
help of every kind were offered in great abundance by 
States and private persons ; and every effort was made to 
put the city of Washington, the national capital, into a 
condition of security. Washington was at first a very 



366 THE IV A R FOR. THE UNION [iS6i 

unsafe place for the government, for it was so near the 
Confederate States that it was exposed to immediate 
attack. Soldiers at once began to gather for its defence. 
To reach it, they had to pass through Baltimore, where 
the secessionists were then very strong. Here, in a 
street-fight between a Massachusetts regiment and the 
mob which was trying to stop its march, the first blood 
of the war was shed, on April 19, the anniversary of the 
fight at Lexington (§ 181). Other regiments passed by 
water from Havre de Grace on the Susquehanna through 
Annapolis, and Washington was soon made secure. 

624. In the South the excitement was as great as in the 
North, and the people were now as much united. Even 
those who had not wished to secede did not believe that 
the government had any right to force the seceding States 
back into the Union. When the Confederate Govern- 
ment called for 35,000 volunteer soldiers, several times 
the number offered themselves. 

625. Civil War had fairly begun. President Lincoln 
proclaimed a blockade of the Southern ports; that is, he 
forbade all vessels to enter or leave them, or to engage in 
commerce with them.^ The Confederate Government 
then issued "letters of marque," that is, permission to 
private persons to capture merchant-vessels belonging to 
the United States; and the Confederate Congress declared 
war against the United States. There was thus a differ- 
ence between the parties to the war. The Confederate 
States claimed to be an independent nation, at war with 
the United States. The United States Government re- 
fused to recognize the existence of the Confederate 

1 The United States Government had at first but three vessels with which 
to enforce the blockade; but others were rapidly bought or built, and the 
navy soon became very large (§ 746). Other calls were made for soldiers, 
and before July 200,000 men were under arms. 



i86i] THE BORDER ST/1TES 367 

Government, or to consider its people as an\'thing else 
than rebellious citizens. 

626. The Border States, between the Gulf States and 
the free States, did not desire to secede; but they gen- 
erally belie\-ed that the Gulf States had a right to secede 
if they \\ished to do so, and that the government of the 
United States had no right to force them back into the 
Union. When they received President Lincoln's call for 
A'olunteers to force the seceding States back into the Union, 
the southern row of border States, North Carolina, Tennes- 
see, and Arkansas, refused to obey it, seceded, and joined 
the Confederacy. In the Northern row of border States, 
only Virginia seceded. There were many secessionists 
in Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri; but the Union 
men w^ere in the majorit)-, and held their States to the 
support of the government. In Kentucky the State 
officers at first tried to be neutral, but the people forced 
them to support the government. In Missouri the State 
officers were open secessionists, but the Union majority 
of the people rose in arms, and, after some hard fighting, 
drove them out of the State. In Delaware there were 
hardly any secessionists: but in all the other border States 
there were many persons who went into the Confederate 
army. The people of the w^estern part of Virginia refused 
to recognize the secession of their State, and later formed 
a separate State, under the name of West Virginia 
(>^ 694). 

627. Foreign Nations generally considered it impossible 
for the United States to put down so extensive a rebellion, 
and believed that there would in future be two nations 
where the United States had been. They were not }-et 
inclined to recognize the Confederate States as an inde- 
pendent nation, for it was known that the United States 
would declare war against any country which should do so. 



368 THE WAR FOR THE UNION [1861 

Instead of doing so, they recognized the Confederate 
States as a beUigerent power, that is, a power entitled to 
make war and have war-vessels. ^ This gave Confederate 
cruisers the right to take refuge in foreign harbors. These 
vessels at first escaped from Southern ports through the 
blockade, but were not very successful. Little damage 
was done to American commerce until Confederate agents 
began secretly to build swift vessels in Great Britain 
(§ 672). 

628. The Confederate States, in June, 1861, were eleven 
in number: Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, 
Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Tennessee, 
Arkansas, Louisiana, and Texas. As soon as Virginia 
seceded, their capital was changed from Montgomery to 
Richmond. Their troops poured into eastern Virginia, 
which was to be the great battle-ground of the war, and 
held an irregular curved line from Harper's Ferry to 
Norfolk. They also had troops in the mountains of 
western Virginia, to repel attacks from Ohio. They 
moved troops into southern Kentucky to defend Ten- 
nessee. They had built many batteries along the Missis- 
sippi, so as to stop navigation on that river; and they 
were busily building forts along the coast of the Atlantic 
and the Gulf of Mexico, for protection against the 
blockading fleets. The whole Confederacy was thus soon 
surrounded by a line of defences. 

629. The Federal Troops were at first under the com- 
mand of General Scott. They held the eastern side of 
the Potomac, from Harper's Ferry to Fortress Monroe, 
and that small part of the western side which is directly 
opposite Washington. Of the other parts of the exposed 
country, they attempted only to hold Kentucky and 

^ Great Britain recognized the Confederate States as belligerents in May, 
1861, and other nations shortly followed the example. 



i86i] 



OPERATIONS IN VIRGINIA 



369 



Missouri until the new soldiers should be trained and 
formed into armies. In this they were successful. The 




•f % i '-VlFWASHINSTON^O 




.Xd.i: Mt. -. .."• V-^, , \j . ^ 



\ HuBlfrxviUt, ^^ '^ , 
T~>T' . Sr-'-y /•'■»■■ ' . Ch^irlottLsviU. 





Five Forks' :^■■:^,^yv^._^_y^.^ 




^jTloIt 



Operations in Virginia. 

armies were formed and placed; and, within three months 
after the surrender of Fort Sumter, the people of eleven 
States, 9,000,000 in number, were surrounded by a line 
of hostile fleets and armies which was never broken until 
the end of the war. ^ 

630. West Virginia. — Serious fighting began early in 
July, in West Virginia, where General George B. McClel- 



' During these three months, while the two lines were settling down into 
their places, there was constant skirmishing from Virginia to Missouri. 
The most important conflict of this kind was at Big Bethel, near Fortress 
Monroe (June 10), in which the Union forces were defeated. 



37° 



THE IVAR FOR THE UNION 



[i86] 



Ian had crossed the Ohio River with a force of Ohio 

troops. McClellan was a 
graduate of West Point, 
and had been a captain in 
the Mexican war, but had 
retired from the army 
after the war, and en- 
gaged in business until 
i86i, when he took 
charge of the Ohio volun- 
teers. He first secured 
the country along the 
river, and then moved 
into the mountains be- 
tween eastern and west- 
ern Virginia. Here he 
beat the enemy in the 
battle of Rich Mountain 
and in several other 
battles; and before the 
end of the month, the Confederates were driven out of 
West Virginia. In September, the Confederate General 
Robert E. Lee attempted to reconquer the lost ground, 
but he was beaten back by McClellan's successor. General 
Rosecrans. 

631. Congress. — The regular meeting-time of Congress 
was not to come until December. But President Lincoln 
had been compelled, in taking steps to defend the coun- 
try, to do many things for which no laws had been 
passed ; and he wished to have Congress in session to 
provide for such matters in future. He called a special 
session for July 4. It voted to consider nothing but war 
business, appropriated $500,000,000 for war expenses, 
authorized the President to call out 500,000 volunteers, 




George B. McClellan. 



i86i] BULL RUN 37 1 

and q;avc liim all powers necessary to carry on the 
war. 

632. Bull Run. — The successes in West Virginia made 
the Northern people anxious for an attack on Richmond, 
and Scott gave an unwilling consent. The road from 
Washington to Richmond is crossed, about 35 miles from 
Washington, by a little stream called Bull Run. Here 
the Confederate army was posted at Manassas Junction, 
under General P. G. T. Beauregard. The advancing 
Union army, under General Irvin McDowell, reached 
Bull Run (July 21), passed the stream successfully, and 
defeated a great part of Beauregard's army. In the 
afternoon, before the battle was decided, the Confederate 
General Joseph E. Johnston brought up a fresh army 
from the Shenandoah valley. The half-drilled Union 
army became panic-stricken, and fled in wild disorder 
to Washington. The enemy was in no condition to 
pursue.^ 

633. The Army of the Potomac — On the day after the 
battle of Bull Run, General McClellan was called from 
West Virginia to command the army of the Potomac. 
In November, Scott was compelled by old age to give up 
the command of all the Union armies to McClellan, who 
set to work to drill and organize the Army of the 
Potomac, and before the end of the year it numbered 
150,000 well-trained soldiers. No general advance was 
attempted, but the Confederate line was gradually pushed 
back from near Washington to its first position near Bull 
Run. The Confederate armies in Virginia were also 
increased and drilled. Both armies were busily fortifying 
their capitals, so that Richmond and Washington were 

^ The forces were at first aljout e(iual, 30,000 on each side. Johnston 
brought in about 10,000 fresli men in his arni}-. The Confederate loss was 
2,000; the Union loss, 3,000. 



372 



THE IVAR FOR THE UNION 



[1861 



soon surrounded by long lines of forts, equipped with 
heavy cannon. 

634. Ball's Bluff. — In October a part of the Union 
forces, 2,000 in number, crossed the Potomac at Ball's 










f TJn.inn Foi'CCS 

— ^ Confederate Ftin 







SCALE OF MILES 



20 40 



Bluff, between Washington and Harper's Ferry. They 
were cut off by a heavier force of the enemy and defeated.^ 
635. In Missouri, General Nathaniel Lyon was at first 
in command of the Union forces. He was an energetic 
and able officer, and soon controlled all the central and 
northern part of the State. In the southern part, the 
Confederates were receiving reinforcements from Arkansas 
and Texas; and, when Lyon moved forward to attack 
them, he w\as defeated and killed in the hard-fought 
battle of Wilson's Creek, near Springfield (August 10). 

' Senator E. D. Baker, of Oregon, who had become a general in tlie 
army, was among the killed. 



iS6i] 



IN MISSOURI 



373 



III October, General John C. Fremont, who liad orc^.anized 
the arm}" anew, mox'ed forward aij^'ain toward Sprini^field ; 
but, before a battle took place, lie was removed, and 




Ulysses S. Grant. 



General Henry W. Halleck took command. Witliout 
any great battle, he gradually during the year drove the 
enemy out of Missouri. In November, General Ulysses 
S. Grant, in command of some Illinois troops, moved 



374 THE IV A R FOR THE UNION [l86i 

down the Mississippi from Cairo, 111., to Belmont, Mo. 
He destroyed a Confederate camp, but was then again 
attacked and compelled to retreat to his gunboats. 

636. On the Coast. — In August, 1861, a naval force, 
with troops on board, under Commodore Stringham and 
General Benjamin F. Butler, captured Hatteras Inlet and 
its fort. From this point attacks were made on the 
neighboring coast of North Carolina. In November, a 
still larger expedition from Fortress Monroe, under Com- 
modore Dupont and General W. T. Sherman, captured 
Port Royal. There were ^6 w^ar-vessels and transports, 
and 15,000 soldiers. The war-vessels drove the enemy 
out of the forts, and then the army took possession of 
them. From this point the neighboring islands between 
Charleston and Savannah were captured. In September, 
the Union fleet took possession of Ship Island, near the 
mouth of the Mississippi, in preparation for an expedition 
the next year against New Orleans. 

637. Military Summary. — During the year there had 
been serious land-campaigns in but two States, Virginia 
and Missouri. The two important battles of the year were 
Bull Run and Wilson's Creek, in both of which the Union 
forces had been beaten. In the smaller battles, with the 
exception of McClellan's successes in West Virginia, the 
Confederates had also generally been successful. The 
people of the North and West had been so long at peace 
that it took them some time to learn how to make war. 
On the other hand, the Union forces had saved three 
great States, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri, part of 
another, West Virginia, and the national capital, Wash- 
ington. They had formed a vast army and navy out of 
nothing, and had walled in the whole Confederacy with 
besieging lines. They had secured, in Hatteras Inlet, 
Port Royal, and Ship Island, good harbors for their 



1862] FOREIGN AFFAIRS 375 

blockadini^ fleets, and points of attack on the nei^hborint^ 
territory. Above all, the manufactories of the North and 
West were in active operation, commerce with foreign 
countries was free, wealth was increasing, and prepara- 
tions for the next year's campaigns were encouraging. 
The Confederacy had no commerce, few manufactories, 
and could only depend on the fighting power of its men 
and the natural strength of its territory. 

638. Foreign Affairs — In November, a United States 
war- vessel, the San Jacinto, Captain Wilkes, stopped an 
English mail-steamer, the Trent, in the West Indies, and 
took off two of her passengers, Mason and Slidell. They 
were Confederate commissioners to Europe, who had run 
the blockade to Havana, and there taken passage to 
England. This right to stop and search neutral vessels 
on the ocean had always been claimed by England as a 
war right, and had led to the War of 18 12 (§ 344). The 
United States, as in 181 2, denied any such right, 
repudiated the action of Wilkes, and gave up the com- 
missioners to Great Britain. But, for the moment, there 
seemed to be a probability of war with Great Britain ; for 
the British Government sent troops and war-vessels to 
Canada, and used harsh language in demanding the com- 
missioners. Thus, though the American Government 
maintained its own principles in giving up the commis- 
sioners, the American people had for some time a sore 
and angry feeling that Great Britain had not behaved 
well in the matter. 

(2) Events 0/1862. 

639. In the West. — The year 1862 was notable in the 
West for the first great success of the general who was to 
end the war, Ulysses S. Grant. The severe fighting of 
the year began in Kentuck}' and Tennessee. The Con- 



376 



THE IV^R FOR THE UNION 



[iS6: 



federates held a line running through southern Ken- 
tucky, from Columbus to Mill Spring, through Bowling 
Green ; and in Tennessee, near the northern boundary-line, 
they had built two strong forts. Fort Henry, on the 

Tennessee, and Fort Don- 
elson, 12 miles distant, 
on the Cumberland. The 
whole line was com- 
manded by General Albert 
Sidney Johnston. Against 
him were two Union 
armies. The larger, under 
General Don Carlos Buell, 
was in central Kentucky, 
arranged into a number of 
divisions and considerably 
scattered. The smaller, 
under Grant, was at Cairo. 
All the forces under Buell, 
numbered over 100,000; 
those under Grant, about 
15,000. 

640. Grant's Advance — 
Mill Spring was attacked in 
January by a division of Buell's forces, under General 
George H. Thomas. The Confederates were beaten and 
driven into Tennessee, and their commander, General 
Zollicoffer, was killed. From Cairo Grant moved up the 
Tennessee River toward Fort Henry. Before he could 
reach it, it had been captured by the fleet of gunboats, 
under Commodore Andrew H. Foote, which had accom- 
panied the army up the river. A large part of the garri- 
son of Fort Henry had escaped by land to Fort Donelson. 
Grant's army followed, besieged Fort Donelson, and 




Albert Sidney Johnston. 



1862] PITTSBURGH LANDING, OR SHILOH 377 

cai)turcd it (I^'cbruaiy 16) after very hard flighting. The 
prisoners numbered about 14,000. 

641. The Effect of these victories was to break up the 
whole Confederate hne and push it far back into Tennes- 
see. Columbus and other points in Kentucky were 
evacuated, for fear their garrisons should be cut off by the 
advancing Union armies. Nashville, the capital of 
Tennessee, was occupied by Federal troops; and, as all 
the State authorities had left it, President Lincoln ap- 
pointed Andrew Johnson (§751) military governor of 
Tennessee. Grant's army was increased to 40,000 men, 
and sent on steamboats up the Tennessee River. It 
encamped at Pittsburgh Landing, on the west side of the 
Tennessee River, in the southern part of Tennessee; and 
Buell's army was hurried forward, down the eastern side 
of the river, to join it. 

642. Pittsburgh Landing, or Shiloh. — Before Buell could 
reach Grant, Johnston had gathered all his forces to strike 
the camp at Pittsburgh Landing. His attack was made 
early in the morning (April 6), and was at first successful. 
The Union forces had no suspicion that an enemy was 
near them when the Confederate line burst on them from 
the woods and drove them down to the river-bank. Here 
the gunboats drove the enemy back by a heavy fire of 
shells, and gave the Union forces time to rally. During 
the afternoon and night, about 20,000 of Buell's fresh 
troops reached Grant; Johnston had been killed during 
the battle; and the next morning the Union forces 
advanced and drove the Confederates off the field. This 
was the first of the great battles of the war. It is often 
called the battle of Shiloh, from the name of the little 
church around which the heaviest fighting took place.' 

1 The Union forces engaged were 57,000, and their loss 13,000. The 
Confederate forces were 40,000, and their loss 1 1, 000. 



378 



THE IVAR FOR THE UNION 



[1862 



643. Corinth, in Mississippi, was now an important 
point to be secured by the Union forces, because of the 
number of railroads which centred there. The Con- 
federates had fortified it strongly, and it was expected 
that Beauregard, who had succeeded Johnston, would 
defend it. General Halleck was now in command of the 
Union forces, and he slowly pushed his way so near to 




— ^ Vnion Furcis 

-> Con/cdtrate Forces 



SCALE OF MILES 



100 200 

Operations in the West. 



Corinth that Beauregard evacuated it (May 30), and 
retired southward. Here the Union advance stopped for 
a time. It had opened up the Mississippi from Cairo to 
Memphis, and the Union line now ran along the southern 
boundary of Tennessee. 

644. Bragg's Raid. — General Braxton Bragg now took 
Beauregard's place. In August he quietly moved the 
larger part of his army eastward until he had passed the 
Union line, and then struck north for Kentucky. Buell, 
who was also moving eastward toward Chattanooga, 



1862] MURFREESBORO 379 

hastened northward with a weaker army, and readied 
Louisville ahead of Bragg'. For over a month the Con- 
federates remained in Kentuck}-, plundering the country. 
Then they turned back to the southward, finding the 
Kentucky people loyal to the Union. Both armies had 
been largely reinforced, and Buell pursued. He overtook 
Bragg at Perryville, and an indecisive battle was fought. 
The Confederates succeeded in carrying off their long 
trains of plunder to Chattanooga, while the Union army 
took post at Nashville. 

645. Murfreesboro. — After leaving its booty at Chat- 
tanooga, the Confederate army moved northwest about 
half the distance to Nashville, and erected fortifications at 
Murfreesboro. General William S. Rosecrans had taken 
Buell 's place in command at Nashville. In December 
he set out, with about 40,000 men, to attack Murfrees- 
boro. Before he had quite reached it, Bragg sucidenly 
attacked him, with about an equal number of men, and 
one of the bloodiest battles of the war followed, lasting 
three days. It is sometimes called the battle of Stone 
River, from a shallow stream which flowed between the 
armies. The Confederates had the advantage in the first 
day's fighting (December 31), but lost it in the next two 
days. In the end they slowly left the field and retired 
for a few miles, while the Union troops were unable to 
pursue. Both armies then went into winter quarters, each 
watching the other. ^ 

646. Grant and Sherman. — All this time. Grant was left 
in command at Corinth, almost in idleness, though he 
repulsed two attacks of the enemy. Toward the end of 
the year, he made a first attempt to reach Vicksburgh ; 
but the Confederate cavalry swept in, in the rear of his 
army, destroyed the supplies which he had collected, and 

' The Union loss was about 14,000; the Confederate loss, about 11,000. 



380 



THE IVJR FOR THE UNION 



[1862 



compelled him to return. All this was a discouraging 
lack of success for Grant. It was balanced, however, by 
the close friendship which he had already formed for 
General William T. Sherman. From this time the names 
of Grant and Sherman are as closely connected as those 
of Lee and Jackson on the other side. 

647. Across the Mississippi there was little severe fight- 
ing this year. In March, a battle was fought at Pea 
Ridge, near the northwestern boundary of Arkansas, and 
the Confederates were defeated. For a time there were 
hardly any Confederate armies in Missouri and Arkansas ; 
but there was a great deal of guerrilla fighting, that is, 
attacks upon small parties of Union troops by armed 
men who were not regular soldiers or under any military 
control. 

648. The Western Gunboats had done a great deal of the 
year's fighting, They w^ere of a different appearance from 




WtbTEKN (jUNIiOAlS 



ocean gunboats, many of them having been made by 
covering the sides of river-steamboats with iron plates or 
rails. Sometimes a beak or ram was added at the bow. 
While the Union armies were forcing their way across 
Kentucky and Tennessee, the gunboat fleet gave them 
great assistance by controlling the Tennessee and Cum- 
berland rivers, capturing Confederate batteries, and even 



iS62] IRONCLAD VESSELS 3^1 

takini^ an active part in tlic battles. At I'ittsburL^ii Land- 
ing', the i^unboats threw shells over the Union army into 
the Confederate ranks, and thus checked the advance. 
Before Bragg's raid took place, the gunboats had fought 
two successful battles with the Confederate gunboats on 
the Mississippi Rivei, and had cleared that river of the 




m^mlilikMkmm 



Confederate Ram. 

enemy as far south as Vicksburgh. The strongest resist- 
ance made by the Confederates was at Island Number 
Ten, near New Madrid. They fortified it, and defended 
it for nearly a month ; but in the end the garrison sur- 
rendered. 

ON THE COAST. 

649. Ironclad Vessels had as yet hardly been used on 
the ocean. Great Britain and France had built such 
vessels as experiments, but they had never been tried 
in war. At Norfolk the Confederates had been turning 
the frigate Mcrriinac, which they had captured in the 
navy yard there in 1861, into an ironclad ram. They 
called her the Virginia, but she was better known by her 
original name, the JMcrriuiac. At New York, Captain 
John Ericsson (§ 447) had also been building an ironclad 
vessel, which he called the Monitor. 



382 



THH IVAR FOR THE UNION 



[i86: 



650. The Merrimac was finished early in the year. She 
sailed out (March 8) from 
Norfolk into Hampton 
Roads, where there was a 
fleet of five of the finest 
vessels then in the United 
States navy, besides a num- 
ber of smaller vessels. The 
battle was soon over, for 
the Federal fleet could do 
nothing with the Meri'imac. 
They poured on her a storm 
of heavy shot, but these 
bounded harmlessly from 
her iron roof She rammed 
and sunk the Cuinbcrla)id, 
chased the others into shal- 
low water, and there fired John Ericsson. 

at them at her pleasure. Before she could finish the work, 

it became dark. When 

she went back to Nor- 
folk for the night, there 
was apparently nothing 
to stop her from sailing 
to Washington the next 
morning or along the 
Atlantic coast. The 
blockade and the great 
Eastern cities were at the 
mercy of the monster, 
and the telegraph car- 
ried the alarminer news 





SCALE OF MILES 



everywhere. 

651. The Monitor 



unexpectedly arrived in Hampton 



1862] THF. MONITOR AND THE MERRIMAC 383 

Roads two hours after the Mcrriniac went back to Norfolk, 
and while the alarm was at its highest. No one expected 
much from her, for she looked far smaller and weaker than 
the Ma-rimac. When the Mem'iinac sailed out into 
Hampton Roads the next morning, to finish her work, the 
little Monitor moved out between her and the wooden 
frigates, and a desperate combat followed. After four 
hours of firing and ramming, neither vessel was seriously 
injured ; but the Mcrriniac could do nothing with her 




1.11. :.l,.;, ,:..:, a..i- .111. M 1. „„,,.. .v,_. 

antagonist. Finally, she gave up the fight and steamed 
back to Norfolk, from which she never again came out 
(§ 659)- The telegraph carried the joyful news every- 
where that ' ' the Monitor had whipped the Mcrriniac , ' ' 
and the danger was over. The events of these two days 
proved that the day of wooden war-vessels was past. 
The Federal Government soon had a number of moni- 
tors afloat, sufficient to defend the whole coast. The 
Confederates also began to build ironclads, in order to 
break the blockade. Other nations at once began to give 
up wooden ships and form ironclad navies, so that this 
fight in Hampton Roads had the effect of changing the 
navies of the world. 



384 



THE IVAR FOR. THE UNION 



[1862 



652. On the Coast there were further Union successes. 
In February, a great naval expedition, under Commodore 
Goldsborough and General Ambrose E. Burnside, cap- 
tured Roanoke Island, the scene of Raleigh's colonies 
(§ 23). Soon afterward, St. Augustine and several other 
places in Florida were captured by troops from Port 
Royal; and Fort Pulaski, at the mouth of the Savannah 
River, was besieged and captured. These captures made 
the work of the blockading vessels much easier, for most 
of the good harbors on the Atlantic coast were now in 
the hands of the Union forces. Charleston and Wilming- 
ton were almost the only good harbors left for blockade- 
runners. 

653. New Orleans was a place of great importance to 
the Confederates, for while they held it they controlled 

the lower Mississippi. Thirty 
miles above the mouth of the 
river were two strong forts. 
Forts Jackson and St. Philip, 
on opposite sides of the river, 
each mounted with heavy 
guns. Across the river be- 
tween them six heavy chains 
were stretched, supported by 
a great raft of cypress logs, 
so that the river was com- 
20 40 60 pletely closed. Behind the 

raft there were thirteen gunboats, an ironclad floating 
battery, a ram, and fire-rafts to burn an enemy's vessels. 
Between the forts and New Orleans there were many 
batteries along the river-banks, and in the city there was 
an army of about 10,000 men. 

654. A Naval Expedition against New Orleans, under 
Commodore David G. P\irragut and General Benjamin F. 




SCALE OF MtLES 



1862] 



FARRAGUT AT NEIV ORLEANS 



385 



Butler, sailed from Hampton Roads in February for Ship 
Island (§ 636). Here the troops, 15,000 in number, 




David G. Farragut. 

landed, until the navy could open the passage up the 
river. Farragut bombarded the forts for a week, and then 
determined to force his way up the river. Some of his 
gunboats ran up to the forts on a dark night, cut the raft 
and chains, and opened a way for the vessels. The 
frigates, which were wooden, were carefully protected 



386 THE JVAR FOR THE UNION [1862 

with sand-bags inside, and chains outside; and at two 
o'clock in the morning of April 23 the fleet, numbering 
thirteen vessels, moved up the river. After one of the 
most desperate battles of the war, the vessels passed the 
forts. Great bonfires were blazing on the banks, but the 
smoke was so thick that little could be seen. Each vessel 
fought for itself, firing at the forts, the gunboats, and the 
ironclads as they came near her; and none of them knew 
very much about the result until the smoke cleared away, 
and they found themselves above the forts. The Con- 
federate fleet had been destroyed in the battle. 

655. The Mississippi River — New Orleans surrendered 
to the fleet April 25, and the forts surrendered soon after. 
General Butler then took command at New Orleans, and 
the fleet sailed on up the Mississippi until it met the 
western gunboat fleet from Memphis (§648). During the 
summer the western gunboats attacked and destroyed, 
near Baton Rouge, a powerful Confederate ironclad ram, 
the Arkansas. It had been built in the Yazoo River, and 
had passed out into the Mississippi to offer battle to the 
fleet. The Mississippi River was now open through nearly 
all its course. The Confederates still had strong forts at 
Vicksburgh and Port Hudson ; but they were placed on 
bluffs high above the river, so that the gunboats could not 
capture them, though they could run past them by night. 
There was no army at hand to give assistance ; and the 
capture of these two places was left until the next year 
(§ 680). In the mean time, Farragut left the Mississippi, 
to take command in the Gulf of Mexico. 

656. In Virginia this was a battle-year. The fighting 
was incessant, and there were four distinct campaigns: (i) 
McClellan's Peninsular campaign; (2) Pope's campaign 
in front of Washington; (3) The Confederate invasion of 
the North; and (4) Burnside's Fredericksburgh campaign. 



i862] 



THE y4RMY OF THE POTOMAC 



387 



657. The Army of the Potomac had been increased to 
nearly 200,000 men, well drilled and armed, and in ex- 
cellent condition. 
The authorities at 
\\'ashini4ton were 
very anxious that 
McClellan should 
move the army 
directly southwest 
toward Richmond, 
so as to keep it 
always between 
the enemy and 
Washington.^ But 
the country on this 
route was va-y 
rough, was crossed 
by many rivers, 
and had been 
strongly fortified 
by the Confed- 
erates, so that Mc- 
Clellan preferred 
to carry his army 
by water to Fort- 
ress Monroe, and 
then move it up 
the peninsula between the York and James rivers to Rich- 
mond. The objection to this was tliat it opened the way 
to the Confederates for a sudden rush on Washington, a 

' This need of protecting Washington interfered with tlie phms of all the 
Union generals during the war. In the same way, the Confederate gen- 
erals had to think first of ])rotecting Richmond. Lee once said that he had 
•'got a crick in liis neck, from always having to look back over his shoulder 
at Richmond," 




PENINSULAli 
CAMPAIGN 



SCALE OF MILES 



Operations in the East. 



388 



THE IVAR FOR THE UNION 



[1862 



more valuable prize than Richmond. It was finally 
decided to follow McClellan's plan, but to keep a part of 
his army, under McDowell, in front of Washington, at 
Fredericksburgh, and another army, under General N. P. 
Banks, in the Shenandoah valley. 

658. The Confederate Army was at Manassas Junction 
(§ 632). It was commanded by General Joseph E. 
Johnston. As fast as McClellan's army was moved 

to Fortress Monroe, John- 
ston's army was moved to 
the Peninsula, so as to hold 
position between McClel- 
lan and Richmond.^ 

659. Yorktown, on the 
Peninsula, the scene of 
Washington's capture of 
Cornwallis (§261), was the 
first fortified place on the 
road from Fortress Monroe 
to Richmond. Early in 
April, it was attacked by 
McClellan's army, and 
after a siege of a month 
the Confederates evacuated 
j<,si;iH K. j.ii .-T..N-. it and retired toward Rich- 

mond. At Williamsburgh they were overtaken by the 
Union forces, and an indecisive battle took place. The 
Confederates were now inside of the lines of intrenchments 
close around Richmond. The Union forces were divided 
into two parts by a little stream called the Chickahominy, 
which passes Richmond on the north and empties into the 

1 Johiistcjii was wounded in one of the early battles, and Lee took his 
place. Jackson, commonly called " Stonewall " Jacks(jn, was Lee's ablest 
assistant (§ 661). 




iS62] 



AT THE CHICKAHOMINY 



389 



James. It is a dang'erous thing thus to divide an army. 
McClellan risked it because he wished to push his hne far 
enough north to join McDowell at Fredericksburgh, and 




Robert E. Lee. 

get the assistance of his army without uncovering Wash- 
ington (§ 657). The Union gunboats controlled the James 
River to within eight miles of Richm(~)nd ; and the Con- 
federates had destroyed t\\cJ\fcrrijnac\ because she drew too 
much water to make her escape from Norfolk to Richmond. 



390 



THE iVAR. FOR THE UNION 



[1862 



660. Seven Pines and Fair Oaks. — Late in May there 
were heavy rains. The Chickahominy rose rapidly and 
carried away the bridges ; the whole country on its banks 
became a great swamp; and McClellan's army was badly 
divided. Johnston's army at once attacked the weaker 
division, on the Richmond side of the Chickahominy, at 
Seven Pines and Fair Oaks (see map, § 663). After two 
days' heavy fighting, Johnston was badly wounded, and 
his army retired again toward Richmond. General Robert 
E. Lee took his place. McClellan spent several weeks in 
rebuilding the bridges ; but, while he was doing so, Lee 
and Jackson were operating elsewhere with great success. 

661. Lee and Jackson. — Lee, who had been considered 
the best officer of the United States regular army, had 

\^-'-^T'"mm\\'^^v^ followed his State when 
Virginia seceded. From 
this time, he was recog- 
nized as the ablest Con- 
federate general. His 
chief lieutenant was Gen- 
eral Thomas J. Jackson, 
also a Virginian, com- 
monly called "Stonewall" 
Jackson, from the obstinate 
way in which he had held 
his ground at Bull Run. 
He was a man of simple 
character, so intensely re- 
ligious as to be considered 
a fanatic, and a general 
of remarkable ability. 
MAS J. jALK. 662. The Raids of Jack- 

son and Stuart. — Johnston had already sent Jackson north 
to the Shenandoah, where Banks was in command of 




i862] 



SEVEN D^YS' BATTLES 



391 



Cold Harbor 



the Union forces (§ 657). Jackson put Banks to rout, 
and chased him to the l^otomac. Indeed, it seemed as 
if the road to Washington was open to him ; and the 
authorities there were so much alarmed that they called 
McDowell back from Fredericksburgh to defend the city. 
This was just what the Confederates wanted. They had 
balked McClellan's plan (§659). In the middle of June, 
General J. E. B. Stuart, an active cavalry officer, was 
sent on another raid. Stuart's force rode completely 
around McClellan's army, burning provisions and cars, 
and tearing up railroads, so as to interfere very much with 
McClellan's operations. 

663. Seven Days' Battles. — Lee now had to deal only 
with McClellan, for he had got his other enemies out of 
the way. He hurried 
Jackson back to Rich- 
mond, and crossed the 
Chickahominy to meet 
him. He thus had about 
90,000 men, nearly as 
many as McClellan ; but 
his troops were united, 
while McClellan's were 
still divided by the river. 
The terrible series of 
engagements known as 
the Seven Days' Battles 
began (June 26) at Me- 
chanicsville, a little place 
just north of Richmond, 

where Lee attacked the seven Days' Battles. 

part of McClellan's army north of the Chickahominy, and 
was repulsed. The next day he won a victory at Gaines's 
Mill, and cut off McClellan from his supplies on the York 




SCALE OF MILES 



392 THE IV A R FOR THE UNION [1862 

River. Then McClellan began a retreat to the James 
River on the south, in order to reunite his forces. Lee 
followed, and for the rest of the week there was desperate 
fighting- every day, the principal battles being those of 
Savage's Station (June 29), Glendale, or Frazier's Farm 
(June 30), and Malvern Hill (July i). The last-named 
battle ended the series, for Lee was repulsed, and 
McClellan had reached the James River. This ended 
McClellan's Peninsular campaign, and his army was soon 
needed for the defence of Washington.^ 

664. Pope's Campaign. — The Union forces between 
Fredericksburgh and Washington, 40,000 in number, 
were now put under command of General John Pope. 
Lee kept enough men to hold Richmond, and sent the 
rest, under Jackson, north to attack Pope. Jackson com- 
pletely defeated Pope in the second battle of Bull Run 
(August 29), on the old Bull Run battle-field (§632), and 
drove his army in confusion through Chantilly and Fairfax 
Court-house back to Washington. The authorities there 
hastily ordered McClellan to bring his army back by 
water; and, as fast as this was done, the rest of Lee's 
army was moved north to join Jackson. Thus, early in 
September, the two armies were again about where they 
had been at the beginning of the year. 

665. Lee's Invasion of the North — While McClellan's 
army was still at Washington, Lee crossed the Potomac, 
took possession of Frederick City, and apparently in- 
tended to move right on to Philadelphia or Baltimore. 
McClellan, who now commanded all the forces around 
Washington, marched through Maryland and covered 
Baltimore, so that Lee was compelled to turn to the north- 
west, through the mountains. While he held the moun- 

1 The losses were about the same for both armies, 15,000 men each. 



iS62] 



'ANTIETAM 



393 



tain-passes, Jackson had stopped long enough to capture 
Harper's Ferry, with a garrison of 12,000 men and a 
large amount of sup- 
plies. 

666. Antietam. — Mc- 
Clellan overtook the 
Confederates, and 
fought the indecisive 
battle of South Moun- 
tain (September 14). 
Lee was compelled to 
give up his invasion of 
the north, and turn and 
fight. He took position 
along Antietam Creek, 
near Sharpsburgh, and 
here was fought the 
great battle of Antie- 
tam, or Sharpsburgh 
(September 17). It was 
a drawn battle, but the 
result was against the 
Confederates, for they 
had to abandon the 
invasion of the North 
and recross the Poto- 
mac into Virginia. McClellan followed them slowly, 
and by November the armies were back again not far 
from the positions they had held at the beginning of the 
war. McClellan was blamed for his slowness, and the 
command of the army was taken from him and given to 
General Ambrose E. Ikn-nside. McClellan held no further 
command durine: the war.^ 




Confederate - - *• - -^ 



SCALE OF MILES 



First Invasion of the North. 



1 The Confederate forces at Antietam numbered 40,000; the Union forces 



394 



THE IVAR FOR THE UNION 



[i86: 



667, Fredericksburgh. — Burnsidc marched his army, 
which now numbered 125,000 men, to Fredericksburgh, 

intending to cross the Rap- 
pahannock there, and move 
straight for Richmond. Lee 
and Jackson reached their 
side of the Rappahannock 
first, and fortified the hills 
behind Fredericksburgh. 
Nevertheless, B u r n s i d e 
crossed the river and at- 
tempted to storm the hills 
(December 13). He was 
defeated, with heavy loss, 
and was driven back to the 
north side of the Rappahan- 
nock. The command of 
the army was then taken 
from him, and given to 
General Joseph E. Hooker. ^ 

668. Military Summary. — In the spring of 1862, the 
advantages were all with the Union forces. Mill Spring, 
Forts Henry and Donelson, Pea Ridge, Pittsburgh Land- 
ing, and Corinth, in the West, the naval battle at Hamp- 
ton Roads, Roanoke Island, Fort Pulaski, and New 
Orleans, on the coast, were all important Union victories. 
The disasters in Virginia during the summer, and Bragg's 
raid into Kentucky, were not so favorable. But, on the 
whole, the year was marked by long steps forward. No 
territory had been lost in Virginia; the Union lines had 
been advanced across the whole State of Tennessee ; the 

55, OCX), llKjugli there were about 25,000 others who took no part in tlio 
battle. Eacli side lost about the same number, 12,500. 

* The Union loss was about 12,000; tlie Confederate loss, 5,500, 




Ambrose E. Burnsidk. 



1863] EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION 395 

Mississippi had been almost opened ; and great pieces 
had been taken out of the Confederacy in every direction. 
The blockade was constantly growing stricter, so that the 
Southern people were in want of such common medicines 
as quinine ; and the two great attempts, by Bragg and 
Lee, to burst through the besieging line of armies had 
been beaten back. But there was no feeling now that 
the war was to be an easy matter. By the end of the 
year, 1,300,000 volunteers had been called for, and the 
number of vessels in the navy was nearly 600. The ex- 
penses of the government were nearly $3,000,000 a 
day, 

669. Emancipation. — Slavery was not interfered with by 
the government at the beginning of the war. But there 
was a strong feeling at the North that slavery was the 
real cause of the war; and, as the struggle grew fiercer, 
many who had never been Abolitionists began to wish 
that Congress and the President would, as a war-measure, 
attack slavery. Just after the battle of Antietam, Presi- 
dent Lincoln issued his first P^mancipation Proclamation. 
It warned the seceding States that he would declare their 
slaves free unless they returned to the Union before the 
first day of the next year. No seceding State returned, 
and the final P^mancipation Proclamation was issued, 
January i, 1863. From that time, the army and navy 
of the United States considered all negroes free men, and 
refused to allow their former masters to treat them as 
slaves ; and as fast as the army and navy gained control 
of the South, the masters were obliged to surrender con- 
trol of the negroes. Negroes were also enlisted as soldiers 
and sailors. Not until 1865, however, was the Constitu- 
tion so amended as forever to forbid slavery. 

670. Financial Affairs. — The support of such enormous 
armies and navies required the expenditure of money on 



39^ THE IV A R FOR THE UNION [1862 

an equally large scale, and the ordinary revenue of the 
government was not at all equal to it. In 1862, the 
government decided to issue paper money in bills, which 
were often called " greenbacks " from the color of the ink 
with which their backs were printed. This money was 
made a legal tender; that is, any one who owed a debt 
had the right to pay it in this paper money, no matter how 
much the paper might have decreased in value. From 
this time until 1879 (§ 813), the government paid out its 
own paper money for its expenses. It would not have 
been safe to issue too much of this kind of money, for it 
decreases in value rapidly when too much is issued 
(§ 233); and a large part of the expense of the war was 
paid by loans, by selling bonds, or promises to pay, with 
interest, in the future. In order to encourage the sale of 
the bonds, the National Banking system was established 
in 1863. Banks were not allowed to issue currency, 
without depositing a slightly larger amount of bonds at 
Washington. All the banks which issued currency were 
thus compelled to buy bonds, that is, to take part in the 
loaning of money to the government (§ 484). 

671. Foreign Affairs. — The Confederates bad expected 
that Great Britain and France would intervene in the 
war; that is, that they would agree to consider the Con- 
federate States an independent nation, and attempt to 
force the United States to follow their example. They 
expected this because the cotton-factories in those two 
countries were in great straits for want of the Southern 
cotton, which was cut off by the blockade (§ 625). The 
Emancipation Proclamation put an end to any such ex- 
pectation ; the people of Great Britain would not have 
allowed their government to attempt to force the United 
States to stop abolishing slavery, and the French Govern- 
ment would not have ventured to intervene alone. 



[862] 



CONFEDERATE PRIVATEERS 



597 




672. Confederate Privateers New reasons arose f(^r ill 

feeling in the North against the J^ritish Government. Con- 
federate agents 
in England built 
and armed two 
fast-sailing steam- 
ers, the Alabama 
and the Florida. 
The British Gov- 
ernment was not 
sufficiently care- 
ful to seize them ; 

they escaped to Ihe Alabama. 

sea, and soon almost entirely drove American commerce 
from the ocean. Whenever they were closely chased by 
American frigates, they found a friendly refuge in British 
harbors, until they could again get out to sea and re- 
new their work of destruction. As they were British 
built, British armed, and manned mostly by British 
sailors, it looked to the people of the United States as if 
the building of these vessels were a British trick to destroy 
the commerce of a friendly nation. 

673. The Sioux War. — During the summer of 1862, the 
Sioux Indians, in western Minnesota, revolted. They 
had made many complaints of their treatment by the 
government, and in August they burst suddenly upon the 
outlying settlements, killing men, women, and children 
without mercy. Troops were hurried back from the 
western armies, and the Indians were driven out of the 
State. Thirty-eight of them were tried, convicted of 
murder, and hanged. 



39^ THE IV A R FOR THE UNION [1863 

(3) Events of i86j. 

IN THE EAST. 

674. Chancellor sville. — For some months the Army of 
the Potomac, under General Hooker, lay quiet on the 
north side of the Rappahannock (§ 667). Then Hooker 
again led the army across the Rappahannock, keeping to 
the north of the strong defences behind Fredcricksburgh, 
and thus forced his way about ten miles toward Richmond. 
He was then met by Lee's army at a little place called 
Chancellorsville, and one of the great battles of the war 
followed (May 2-3). By skilful generalship, Lee and 
Jackson inflicted heavy loss on the Union army, and 
drove it back across the Rappahannock. But the Con- 
federates suffered a heavier loss in the death of ' ' Stone- 
wall " Jackson. He was shot, through mistake, by some 
of his own men, during the night after the first day's 
battle. Lee said, very truly, that he had lost his right 
arm in losing Jackson.' 

675. Second Invasion of the North. — During the month 
of June, Lee made preparations for a second invasion of 
the North. His army, now numbering 70,000 men, was 
moved around the west of Hooker's army, until it reached 
the Shenandoah valley. At the same time. Hooker was 
drawing back his army of about 100,000 men toward 
Washington, to protect that city. Soon the movement 
changed into a race between the two armies for the North. 
Lee's army moved through the Shenandoah valley, crossed 
the Potomac at Harper's Ferry, marched across Maryland, 
and entered Pennsylvania. The main body was at 
Chambersburgh, but parts of it held York and came 

- Tlie Union forces engaged numbered 90,000, and their loss was 17,000; 
the Confederate forces numbered 45,000, and their loss was 12,000. 



i863] 



BATTLE Oh GETTYSBURGH 



399 



HARRISBURQ 

V"nA N I a 



within a few miles of IIarrisburi;"h. The invasion caused 
great alarm in the North. All business was stopped in 
Philadelphia, and 



militia regiments 
were hin'ried for- 
ward from all 
the States to aid 
the Army of the 
Potomac. 

676. The Army 
of the Potomac 
had crossed the 
Potomac be- 
tween Lee and 
Washington, and 
moved north 
through Mary- 
land so as to 
protect Balti- 
more and Phila- 
delphia. General 
George E. Meade 
had now taken 




SCALE OF MILES 



Second Invasion of the North. 

Hooker's place as commander. Just as Lee turned his 
course east from Chambersburgh to attack Philadelphia, 
the army of the Potomac moved up between him and the 
city, and the two armies met at Gettysburgh. 

677. The Battle of Gettysburgh was fought July i, 2, 
and 3. The Union army was on the crest of a line of 
hills called Cemetery Ridge ; the Confederate army was 
on the crest of a line of hills opposite, called Seminary 
Ridge; between them, in the valley, was the town of 
Gettysburgh. The first day's fighting was rather in favor 
of the Confederates. On the second day they even gained 



400 



THE IV/IR. FOR THE UNION 



[1863 



one of the Union positions. The final struggle came on 
the third day. After a tremendous fire of two hours from 

150 cannon, the Con- 



federates made their last 
charge in a line more than 
a mile long. It was gal- 
lantly made, and gal- 
lantly repulsed after a 
three hours' struggle. 
When the sun set, the 
battle of Gettysburgh was 
over, and Lee was de- 
feated. > 

678. Lee's Retreat was 
begun during the night, 
and his army moved south- 
ward through Maryland 
and Virginia to the Rapi- 
dan, a branch of the Rap- 
pahannock. The Army 
of the Potomac followed 
slowly until it reached the opposite bank of the Rapidan. 
Here the two armies remained in position until Grant 
came to take command in Virginia the following year 
(§ 698). But Lee's army never fully recovered from the 
terrible losses of Gettysburgh, and it made no further 
effort to break through the Union line, or invade the 
North. 

IN THE WEST. 

679. Union Positions. — In the beginning of the year 
1863 there were four Union armies in the West. One 

^ The Union loss was about 23,000; the Confederate loss, about 30,000. 
While the last charge was being repulsed, the arrangements were being 
made for the surrender of Vicksburgh (§ 682). 




George G. Meade. 



;86,5] 



CONFEDFJiATB POSITIONS 



401 



was near Murfrecsboro, under Rosecrans (§ 645); another 
was in northern Mississippi, near Holly Spring's, under 
Grant (§ 646) ; a third was in Louisiana, under Banks, 
who had succeeded Butler (^ 655); and a fourth was in 
Arkansas (§ 647). The leading object of these armies 
was to open up the Mississippi, and thus split the Con- 
federacy; and as Grant was operating close to the line of 
the river, the burden of the work fell first on him. His 
ablest assistant was Sherman. 

680. Confederate Positions. — The river was still blocked 
by strong Confederate fortifications at Vicksburgh and 
Port Hudson (§ 655). 
Between Vicksburgh and 
Grant was a Confederate 
army under Pemberton ; 
and all the Confederate 
forces in the West were 
under J. h>. Johnston 
(§ 658), who had suc- 
ceeded Bragg. But 
Pemberton and Johnston 
did not work well to- 
gether. When Grant 
had begun his march to- 
ward Vicksburgh the 
year before, Pemberton 
had sent cavalry around 
to the rear of Grant's 
army, captured Holly 

Springs and its supplies. The Vicksburgh Campagn. 

and thus compelled Grant to return unsuccessful. He 
was so elated by this success that he overrated his own 
skill, and gave but a half-hearted obedience to Johnston's 
directions. Johnston wished to have no siege of Vciks- 




SCALE OF MILES 



4° 2 THE JV/iR FOR THE UNION V^^'^Z 

burgh, but to fight Grant in the open field: Pemberton 
proceeded to strengthen the fortifications in every way, 
and to get ready for a siege. 

681. Grant's First Plan was to lead his army across the 
Mississippi, near Memphis, and move down the west bank 
of the river until he should be opposite Vicksburgh. 
Here he endeavored to cut a canal across a great bend in 
the Mississippi, and thus leave Vicksburgh at a distance 
from the river. But the river refused to run through the 
canal, and the plan failed. After two months' hard work, 
he found that Vicksburgh was too strong to be taken from 
this side. Grant then, in April, moved his army still 
farther south, past Vicksburgh, through a low, flat, and 
swampy country. At the same time, the gunboat fleet 
ran past the batteries without much injury, and ferried 
Grant's army across the Mississippi, at Grand Gulf, 
near Port Gibson, so that it was now again on the Vicks- 
burgh side of the river, but below the city. Sherman, 
with a part of the army, kept up a noisy attack on the 
northern side of the city, on the Yazoo River, to distract 
Pemberton 's attention. Johnston was gathering a force 
at Jackson, to aid Pemberton. 

682. Vicksburgh and Port Hudson After crossing the 

Mississippi, Grant moved northeast, fighting five success- 
ful battles as he went, until he reached Jackson. He 
thus drove Pemberton into his fortifications at Vicksburgh 
on one side, while he drove away Johnston on the other. 
Then, turning back from Jackson, he rejoined Sherman, 
and the whole army formed a close siege of Vicksburgh. 
From that time, his grip on the place could not be 
loosened. He threatened Johnston in the rear, while he 
besieged Pemberton in front; and. after a siege of six 
weeks, the place surrendered, with 32,000 prisoners 
(July 4). Port Hudson surrendered July 9 to the Louis- 



1S63] CHICKAMAUGA 403 

iana army under ]5anks. By the captures of Vicksburi^h 
and Port Hudson, the whole Mississippi River passed 
under the control of the Union armies and fleets. The 
Confederates could no longer bring grain and cattle across 
the Mississippi from Texas and Arkansas, to feed their 
armies east of the Mississippi. 

683. In Arkansas the Confederates attacked the post at 
Helena, July 4, and were badly defeated. After the fall 
of Vicksburgh, Grant sent a force into the State and took 
possession of nearly all of it, though there was still some 
fighting b}- Confederate guerrillas (§ 647). 

684. Cavalry Raids had now become, common on both 
sides. A cavalry force, if it could get into the rear of an 
opposing army, could inflict more damage, by tearing up 
railroads and burning supplies, than could be made up by 
the capture of the raiders. One of the boldest of these 
raiders was the Confederate John Morgan. In July he 
passed through Tennessee and Kentucky with 4,000 
horsemen, crossed the Ohio Ri\'er into Indiana, and moved 
eastward into Ohio, fighting the militia as he went. The 
whole State was alarmed, but he was captured before he 
could return into Kentucky.' 

685. Chickamauga was a most important point for both 
sides. The army which held it could control all of 
eastern Tennessee, and at the same time could attack the 
mountainous region to the south of it, in northern Georgia. 
In June, Rosecrans moved his army south from IMurfrees- 
boro, and Bragg retired slowly before him to Chattanooga. 
During the summer, Rosecrans moved part of his army 
so far around Bragg 's army that the Confederates evac- 
uated Chattanooga, and retired about twelve miles south 
into Georgia. Here the}' took a position behind a little 

^ Morgan escaped from prison, and soon afterward was killed in a skir- 
mish in Kentucky. 



404 THE IVAR FOR THE UNION [18^3 

creek called the Chickamauga. Rosecrans thought that 
Bragg was retreating, and hurried to pursue him. But 
Bragg had received reinforcements from Lee's army, and 
defeated the Union army in the battle of Chickamauga 
(September 19-20).^ Most of Rosecrans 's men fled in 
confusion to Chattanooga, but a part, under General 
George II. Thomas, held their ground obstinately, and 
covered the retreat. Bragg followed and shut up tlic 
Union army in Chattanooga so closely that it was almost 
starved. 

686. The Siege of Chattanooga \\as kept up for about 
two months. But one road, and that a bad one, was open 
to the Union troops. The others were controlled by the 
Confederates, who held Lookout Mountain and Missionary 
Ridge, each of them nearly half a mile high, and so 
strongly fortified as to seem to defy attack. The Union 
army could neither advance nor retreat, and there seemed 
to be a likelihood, at one time, that it would have to sur- 
render. Bragg was so sure of an easy success that he 
sent a part of his army, under Longstreet, up the Tennes- 
see River to besiege Knoxville, which was held by Burn- 
side (§ 667). 

687. Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge. — All 
eyes were turned to Grant, who since the battle of Vicks- 
burg had become one of the foremost Union generals, 
and who was now given command of the western armies 
east of the Mississippi. He went to Chattanooga, 
taking Sherman and other generals in whom he had 
confidence, and drawing men from other armies, includ- 
ing a division under Hooker from the Army of the Poto- 
mac. Having made all preparations. Grant gave the 
order to advance, and the lofty positions of Bragg's army 

' The Union forces numbered alxmt 55,000; llie Confederate forces^ about 
60,000. The loss of each was ai)out e(|ual, 17,000, 



'V.3] 



CH.-IRI.FSTON 



405 



were cari'ictl b}' sudden assaults. The result surprised the 
Union troops al- 
most as much as 
it did the Con- 
federates. Part of 
the fighting was 
done so high up 
the mountain-side 
that the troops 
were hidden by 
the clouds, so 
that the battle of 
Lookout Mountain is often called 
"the battle above the clouds." 
Bragg 's army retreated to Dalton, 
where Johnston was put in com- 
mand of it. Operations in the 
West then ceased for the rest of the year. 




ON THE COAST. 

688. Charleston. — Fort Sumter was attacked in April by 
a fleet of ironclads from Port Royal ; but, after half an 
hour's firing, one of the vessels was lost, and the rest 
retired. Charleston was besieged for the last half of the 
year by a land-force from Port Royal, under General 
O. A. Gillmore, aided by gunboats and ironclads. Gill- 
more, after hard fighting, captured an earthwork called 
Fort Wagner. He battered Fort Sumter into ruins, and 
destroyed about half of Charleston by firing shells into it 
from a distance of about five miles. But he failed to cap- 
ture Fort Sumter, or to get any nearer to Charleston than 
the island at the mouth of the harbor. The ironclad 
Atlanta had been built by the Confederates in the Savan- 



406 THE IV AR FOR THE UNION [i-'^^S 

nah River. She was much Hke the Mi'rrimac, but larger 
anu stronger. In June she steamed down the river to 
drive away the blockading fleet. The WccJiaivkcn, a 
monitor, met her and captured her after a fight of fifteen 
minutes, in which the ]Vcchazvkcn fired but five shots. 

689. Military Summary. — The year 1863 was one of 
great advantage to the forces of the United States in the 
West. Kentucky, Tennessee, Missouri, and Arkansas 
had been finally secured, and the seat of war had been 
changed to their southern border. The Mississippi had 
been opened, and the Confederacy divided into two parts, 
each of which in future had to fight for itself, while the 
Federal Government could send troops from the North to 
either side of the river. A new set of generals had 
appeared. Grant, Sherman, Sheridan, and others, who 
were very hard and fast fighters, and cared little for poli- 
tics, or anything else except the war. In the East less had 
been done, and Lee was still more than a match for his 
opponents. But even here advantages had been gained. 
Lee's army had been so badly shattered by the terrible 
slaughter at Gettysburg!! that it was never again quite 
equal to what it had been before ; and his last and strong- 
est attempt to burst through the attacking line and carry 
the war into the North had been a failure. It is clear 
now that July, 1863, was the turning-point of the war, 
after which the Confederac)^ grew steadily weaker. Dur- 
ing that month occurred the battle of Gettysburgh, the 
surrender of Vicksburgh and Port Hudson, the conquest 
of Arkansas, and the movement on Chattanooga. The 
results were so evident that in August a day of thanks- 
giving was proclaimed by President Lincoln, and a day 
of fasting and prayer by the Confederate authorities. 



1^63] PRICES AND PAPER MONEY 407 

INTERNAL AFFAIRS. 

690. In the Confederacy there was now great and general 
distress. The government forced all men between the 
ages of 18 and 45 into the army, so that women and 
children had to do men's work. The soldiers were badly 
fed, clothed, and armed. Food was scarce and dear, for 
the people could now get no cattle from beyond the 
Mississippi, no grain from Virginia and Tennessee, no 
sugar from Louisiana, and no salt or fish from the coast. 
Cotton could not be sold, for the blockade was too strict. 
The railroads were fast wearing out, and there were no 
great iron-works to replace them. It was almost im- 
possible to get such common articles as paper, and print- 
ing was sometimes done on one side of wall-paper. The 
government had issued so much paper money that it was 
almost worthless. One dollar in gold was worth twenty 
dollars in Confederate money. Butter sold for $5 a 
pound; beef, $1.50 a pound; coffee, $10 a pound; corn 
and potatoes, $14 a bushel. 

691. In the North and West there was no such distress. 
Food, manufactures, and wealth were abundant. Taxes 
were high, but the people paid them willingly and easily. 
The tariff had been made very high in 1861, so as to 
offset the high internal taxes, and restrict foreign com- 
petition. Paper money had been issued (§670), and had 
decreased in value so that one dollar in gold was worth 
one and a half dollars in paper; but wages had increased 
somewhat, though not enough to make good this differ- 
ence. 

692. The Union Army was well fed, armed, and clothed; 
and the people formed Sanitary Commissions and other 
associations to care for the comfort of the soldiers in the 
field. These associations built hospitals, distributed food, 



40'^ THE JV/iR FOR THE UNION [1863 

medicines, and assistance of every kind, and aided the sick 
and wounded. To help pay their expenses, great fairs 
were held all over the country, on a scale never equalled 
before or since. The New York City fair brought in 
$1,200,000; the Philadelphia fair, $1,080,000; and the 
Brooklyn fair, $400,000. 

693. Drafts were used this year to fill up the armies, for 
volunteering had become slow. Names were drawn by 
lot from lists of able-bodied men all over the country, and 
those whose names were drawn were forced to enter the 
army or pay for a substitute. The first draft in New York 
City, in July, was stopped by a great mob, which held 
control of the city for several days, and burned houses 
and murdered negroes at its will. Finally it was dis- 
persed by soldiers hurried back from Gettysburgh (§ 6yy), 
and drafting went on unopposed. Drafting did not, 
indeed, bring many soldiers, but it served to stimulate 
volunteering. 

694.* West Virginia. — The western part of Virginia, 
which had refused to take part in secession, was admitted 
to the Union in 1863 as the State of West Virginia. 

FOREIGN AFFAIRS. 

695. Mexico. — France, aided at first by Great Britain 
and Spain, had overturned the republican government of 
Mexico as soon as the troubles in the United States 
began. The United States considered this an unfriendly 
act (§ 420), but at the time could do nothing to resist it. 
France now made Mexico an empire, with Maximilian, 
an Austrian archduke, as emperor. Maximilian accepted 
the throne in the following jx-ar (§ 770). 

696. The Confederate Privateers Alabama and Florida 
(§ 672) continued their destruction of American com- 



1864] MILITARY SITUATION IN 1S64 409 

mercc ; ;uul a new xcsscl, the (icorgia, was sent out on 
the same \\'ork. This \essel, like the otiiers, \\'as built in 
Great l^ritain. Confederate agents also built two power- 
ful ironclad rams in Great Britain, declaring that they 
were intended for the emperor of China; but the United 
States threatened to declare war against Great Britain if 
they were allowed to go to sea, and the British Govern- 
ment at the last moment seized them. Confederate 
agents also tried to build ironclads in France, but the 
French Government refused to permit them to do so. 

(4) Events of iS6^. 

697. Confederate Positions — There were now but two 
great Confederate armies in the field, Lee's in Virginia, 
and Johnston's at Dalton. Johnston's position was in a 
mountainous country, which extended beyond Atlanta, 
giving him a great many defensive points, and making it 
difficult to drive him back into the flat country between 
Atlanta and the sea. 

698. Union Positions. — Grant was now given command 
of all the Union armies, with the rank of lieutenant- 
general, and went to Virginia to meet Lee, taking his 
best cavalry officer, Sheridan, with him. He left Sher- 
man to command the w^estern armies which had been 
gathered in front of Dalton. Grant and Sherman agreed 
that the forward movement should begin on the same 
da}-, and that each should keep his opponent so busy that 
the two Confederate armies should not be able to help one 
another, as they had been in the habit of doing. 

IN THE EAST. 

699. Grant and Lee — Grant had won his western vic- 
tories by "constant hammering," and he set out to do 



410 



THE IVAR FOR THE UNION 



[1864 



the same thing in Virginia. Ikit he had now t6 meet an 
enemy very different from Pemberton or Bragg Lee 
had already won the reputation of being one of the most 
skilful generals of modern times ; and " constant hammer- 
ing ' ' at him was a very perilous undertaking. It was 




I Omfederate . 

SCALE OF MILES 



2U 40 80 

Operations in the East. 



like a battle between a man with a sword and a man with 
a club; and it was not until Grant laid down the club, 
and used his own military skill, that his superiority in 



strength gave him the advantage. 



700. Grant's Plan. — Grant had decided to take the over- 
land route from the Rappahannock River to Richmond 
(§ 657)- An army of 30,000 men, under Butler, was 
sent up the James River, to a point near Petersburgh, to 



1864] THE IVILDRRNESS AND COLD HARBOR 411 

attack Richmond from that side. Another army, under 
Sig'cl and Hunter, was sent up the Shenandoah valley to 
attack L\'nchbur^h and threaten Richmond from the west. 

701. The Wilderness, as it was called, between Fred- 
cricksburgh and Richmond, was crossed from west to east 
by many rivers, and Lee had filled it with fortifications. 
From behind these he fought Grant successfully for two 
weeks, repulsing his stubborn attempts to storm the 
works. The fighting was the bloodiest of the war. In 
the first three days of the Wilderness battles the Union 
loss in killed and wounded was 14,000; and in the next 
eleven days, at Spottsylvania Court-house, it was 14,000 
more: a total hxss in two weeks of 28,000 men. 

702. Flank Movements. — Grant now resorted to his 
military skill, and with more success. At each of Lee's 
defences he attacked lightly in front, at the same time 
pushing part of his force to the left, attacking the rear of 
Lee's army, and so forcing him to retreat to a new posi- 
tion. In this manner Grant worked his way southward 
to the Chickahominy (§659). Lee's army was now inside 
of the main defences of Richmond, the centre of which 
was at Cold Harbor. Once more Grant tried the 
"hammering" process. The whole Union army was 
ordered to assault the Confederate works at once ; but 
the assault was hopelessly repulsed in twenty minutes. 
These two weeks' fighting had cost the Union army 
more than 10,000 men, and the Confederates less than 
2,000. 

703. The Auxiliary Movements had not been successful. 
Butler had been forced by the Confederates into a penin- 
sula on the James River; and then they had built fortifi- 
cations in front of him and ' ' bottled him up. ' ' Sigel and 
Hunter had been defeated ; and their army was driven off 
into West Virginia, so as to leave the Shenandoah valley 



412 THE IV A R FOR THE UNION [1864 

unprotected. Lee was quick to take advantage of this. 
In July he sent part of his army, under Early, through the 
Shenandoah valley, to pass down through Maryland and 
attack Washington. l^ut he found the forts around 
Washington too strong for him, and returned to Virginia, 
having succeeded only in frightening the authorities at the 
capital. 

704. Petersburgh. — The defences of Richmond on the 
north and east had now been found too strong to be taken 
by assault; and Grant determined to move his army 
around, cross the James River, and attack the city from 
the south. In carrying out this movement, the army fol- 
lowed nearly the line of the Seven Days' Battles of 1862 
(§ 663), but with very little fighting. The movement 
was accomplished successfully in June ; but the army had 
no sooner crossed the James River than it came up against 
the fortifications of Petersburgh, which were too strong 
to be taken by assault. Within them was Lee's army, 
which had moved across from Richmond as Grant had 
moved. Petersburgh is about 20 miles south of Rich- 
mond. The Confederate fortifications ran in an irregular 
curve from below Petersburgh around to the north of 
Richmond, a distance of about 30 miles. To defend this 
line, Lee had about 60,000 men. Before him was Grant, 
with about twice as many men, attacking him at different 
places, and keeping him so busy that he could not inter- 
fere with the operations in the West. This was the situa- 
tion of affairs during the rest of this year and until the end 
of the war in the following spring.. Both armies were 
strongly placed. But Grant's constant effort was to push 
his lines farther around to the southwest, so as to attack 
Lee's railroad communications. Whenever he succeeded 
in doing so, Lee had to face him with new fortifications. 
Thus Lee's line was always growing weaker as it grew 



1864] SHHKM.m'S ADyANCB 413 

Ioniser, for lie coukl luircll)' i^ct any fresh troops, while 
Grant had as man}' as he needed.' 

705. The Shenandoah Valley, into which Early had 
retired (§ 703), was wow guarded b}- a Union army under 
Sheridan. In September, Sheridan defeated Early in the 
battle of Winchester. In the following- month, Early 
surprised the Union arm\' at Cedar Creek, about twenty 
miles southwest of Winchester, and defeated it while 
Sheridan was absent at Winchester. In the afternoon, 
Sheridan rejoined his defeated army, rallied the men, and 
defeated Early, driving him far up the valley. ^ 

I\ THE WEST. 

706. Sherman's Advance from Chattanooga against 
Dalton and Atlanta was through a country of lofty moun- 
tains, with strong defensive positions ; but there was no 
"hammering." Both Sherman and Johnston were mas- 
ters of their art; and the contest between them was as 
scientific as a skilful game of chess or a fencing-match. 
Johnston held each position until Sherman's forces began 
to lap around toward his rear; then he retired cautiously 
to another position, and the same process was gone 
through again. Neither general was careless enough to 
give the other the slightest advantage. In this manner 
Johnston was slowly driven back from one position to 
another, until he was forced to cross the Chattahoochee 
River, and take his strongest position, at Atlanta. Be- 
yond Atlanta he could not go much farther south (§ 697). 

1 The Union loss during tlic rest of tlic year was al)out 40,000; tlie Con- 
federate loss, about 20,000. 

^ During this campaign, Sheridan laid waste the whole Shenandoah valley, 
burning barns and destroying crops and farming implements. Over 2,000 
barns were burned. The object of tJie destruction was to make the valley 
$0 desolate that no Confederate troops could tjperate in it. 



414 



THE IVAR FOR THE UNION 



[1864 



The principal battles were Resaca, Dallas, and Kenesaw 
Mountain. But there was no such slaughter as in Vir- 
ginia. Sherman's loss during his whole two months' 




W. T. Sherman. 

march to the Chattahoochee was about the same as the 
Union loss in the two weeks' battles around Cold Harbor 
(§ 702). 

707. Johnston's Plan had been to bring Sherman just 
far enoufdi from Chattanooga to be able to meet him on 



1S64] OCCUPATION OF ATLANTA 415 

equal terms. All Sherman's supplies were broui^ht by 
the single railroad behind him. As he advanced, it was 
necessary for him to leave guards to protect the railroad : 
otherwise the Confederate cavalry would work around to 
his rear, tear up the railroad, and starve his army (§ 684). 
But every guard thus left weakened his force, and made 
it more nearly equal to Johnston's. Johnston had played 
his game of \\:\v so successfully that he was now ready to 
fight the long-delayed battle, and had begun arrange- 
ments to do so. 

708. Johnston's Removal. — Johnston's long retreat had 
been skilfully conducted, but the people of the Confed- 
eracy did not understand the skill of it. They were 
startled as Sherman's storm of war came rolling up toward 
the edge of the Georgia mountains above them ; and 
Jefferson Davis, who always disliked Johnston, made this 
feeling an excuse for removing him. General J. B. Hood 
was appointed in his place. The results were that he 
threw away all the advantages still retained by Johnston ; 
one of the two great Confederate armies was lost before 
the end of the )'ear; and the Confederacy itself fell in the 
following spring. 

709. Capture of Atlanta. — Hood had a great reputation 
as a hard fighter, and was anxious to support it. He 
made three furious attacks on Sherman's army in July, 
which were the severest battles yet fought in Georgia. 
He was beaten in all three. Early in September, Sher- 
man fought his way around toward the rear of Atlanta, 
and Hood was compelled to leave the city, which was 
then occupied b\' the Union forces (September 2). 

710. Hood's Change of Plan. — Early in October, Hood 
moved his whole army past Atlanta, and marched north- 
west toward the country from which Sherman had set out. 
He hoped to compel Sherman to follcnv him, and thus to 



4i6 



THE IVAR FOR THE UNION 



[1864 



chang'c the seat of war again to Tennessee or the North. 
Sherman made a show of pursuing him until he saw him 
fairly started for Tennessee, and then returned to Atlanta, 
tearing up the railroad behind him as he went (§ 712). 
He had already sent ncarl}' half of his arm)' to Tennes- 
see, under Thomas, hoping that Hood would take the 
course he did. 

711. Hood's Tennessee Campaign. — Thomas gathered 
all the Union troops in Tennessee at Nashville, so that 

he was rather the superior 
in numbers as Hood drew 
near the city. At Frank- 
lin, a few miles south of 
Nashville, a battle was 
fought (November 30), and 
the Confederate army suf- 
fered severely. But it 
pressed on and besieged 
Nashville. After long pre- 
paration, Thomas attacked 
the besiegers and com- 
pletely defeated them (De- 
cember 15 and 16). The 
pursuit was so vigorous that 
Hood's troops were scat- 
tered in every direction. 
One of the Confederacy's 
two great armies had thus 
faded into nothing (§ 697). 

712. Sherman's New Plan. — Sherman, on his return to 
Atlanta, had before him a country in which there was not 
an organized Confederate army between him and Virginia, 
nor the material to make one. Hood's mistake had put 
the whole Confederacy at Sherman's mercy. He had an 




GuoRGE H. Thomas. 



IS64] 



THE MARCH THROUGH GEORGIA 



417 



army of 60,000 picked veteran troops, with abundant sup- 
plies, and with States before him which had not greatly 
felt the war, and were the richest part of the Confederacy. 
In the middle of November, he burned Atlanta, cut the 
telegraph-wires to the North, and set out on his march 
southeast to the sea. But the sea was not his final 
destination: his real aim was the back of Lee's army, 
far away in Virginia. 

713. The March through Georgia was finished in a little 
less than a month, and during all this time it was not cer- 
tainly known at the North what had become of Sherman's 




SHERMAN'S MARCH 

SCALE OF 



army. Its route was through Milledgeville and Millen, 
down the peninsula between the Savannah and Ogeechee 
rivers, to Savannah. It marched in four columns, cover- 
ing a strip of country about 60 miles wide, all of which 
w^as made desolate. The railroads were destroyed, the 
depots and bridges were burned, and the army lived on 
the country. There was hard!}' any resistance to the 
march: indeed, it is doubtful whether, on open ground, 
any army of the war could have successfully resisted this 
army of Sherman's. 



41 8 THE U^AR FOR THE UNION [1864 

714. Savannah. — The army reached Ossabaw Sound, 
at the mouth of the Ogeechee River, December 13. Fort 
McAUister, which guarded Savannah, was carried by 
storm in fifteen minutes by General Hazen, and communi- 
cation was opened with the blockading fleet. After a 
siege of eight days, Savannah was captured. Its garrison 
blew up two ironclads which had been built at that city, 
and escaped to Charleston. Sherman's army remained at 
Savannah until February, 1865. 

ON THE COAST. 

715. Operations on the Coast, during this year, consisted 
of a number of attacks intended either to keep the Con- 
federates busy and prevent them from sending assistance 
to Hood and Lee, or to capture Mobile and Wilmington, 
the last ports of the Confederacy for blockade-running. 
In Florida, an expedition from Port Royal landed at 
Jacksonville in February, and marched west into the 
interior. The army was defeated by the Confederates in 
the battle of Olustee, and the expedition was given up. 
In Louisiana, an expedition under Banks was sent up the 
Red River from New Orleans early in the year. Its 
object was to capture Shreveport and conquer the western 
part of the State, which was still held by the Confederates. 
It was defeated in April at Sabine Cross-roads and Pleas- 
ant Hill, near Shreveport, and returned without accom- 
plishing anything. 

716. In North Carolina, the Union troops were driven 
from some of their positions, early in the year, by the 
Confederates, aided by a powerful ironclad, \^q Albemarle. 
In October, Lieutenant Cushing, of the blockading fleet, 
blew up the Albemarle at Plymouth with a torpedo, one 
dark niglit, and the Union forces recovered their posi- 



864] 



FORREST'S RAID 



419 



tions.' In December, a huul and naval expedition, under 
General Butler and iVdmiral Torter, was sent from P^ort- 
ress Monroe to capture Fort Fisher, which guarded the 
entrance to Wilmington. The 
navy bombarded the fort, but the 
army failed to capture it, and the 
expedition returned. Grant sent 
it back again under another com- 
mander, Terr}', who assaulted and 
captured the fort in January, 1865. 
Wilmington was captured soon 
after. The Confederates 
had now but one harbor 
on the Atlantic coast, 
Charleston, and 
that was closely 
blockaded. 

717. For- 
rest's Raid. 
— Before taking 
command of the 
army opposed to John- 
ston, Sherman led an ex- 
pedition east from Vicks- 
burgh. It was intended 
finally to attack Mobile 
from the land side. It reached Meridian, but its cavalry 
column, which was coming from Tennessee, was defeated 
by the Confederate General N. B. Forrest, and Sherman 
returned to Vicksburgh, after destroying an immense 
amount of property. Forrest passed on into Tennessee 

' Cusliing's exploit was one of the most heroic of the war. Out of liis 
crew of thirteen volunteers, only himself and one other escaped. 




420 THE IV A R FOR THE UNION [1864 

on a raid, and captured Fort Pillow, near Memphis. 
Its garrison was mostly negro troops, and Forrest's men 
killed nearly all of them. 

718. Mobile Bay was defended by two strong forts. Fort 
Gaines and Fort Morgan, on opposite sides of the 
entrance. Inside of the entrance there were a great num- 
ber of torpedoes, three gunboats, and a powerful ironclad 
ram, the Tennessee, commanded by Admiral Buchanan, 
formerly captain of the IlTerriniae (§ 650). Outside was 
the blockading fleet, consisting of fourteen wooden vessels 
and four monitors, under Farragut (§ 654). Farragut 
fought his way through the obstructions and past the forts 
into the harbor (August 5). He then attacked and cap- 
tured the Tennessee, much of the fighting being done by 
the wooden frigates.^ The forts then surrendered, and 
there was no more blockade-running at Mobile. The 
city itself was not captured until the following year 

(§ 727). 

719 Military Summary. — The year's operations had 
crushed in the shell of the Confederacy. The battle of 
Nashville had destroyed one of the two Confederate 
armies. There was but one important Confederate army 
left, that of Lee, in Virginia. Lee could do nothing to 
help the States farther south, for any weakening of his line 
would be followed by an instant attack from Grant, \\\\o 

1 The passage of the forts, during which Farragut stationed himself in 
the rigging of his vessel, in order to see over the smoke, is the most cele- 
brated part of the day's work. When cautioned to avoid the torpedoes 
which lined the entrance, the admiral expressed his contempt for the tor- 
pedoes in strong language and gave the order " Go ahead ! " One vessel 
was sunk by a torpedo, but it was not Farragut's. The fight in the bay 
was fully as noteworthy. The Tetinessce was the strongest of the Con- 
federate ironclads, and yet Farragut attacked her with wooden vessels. 
These rammed her until their bows weic broken off, and helped materially 
in capturing her. 



1864] CONFEDERATE PRiyATEERS 421 

w^as watching him vigilantly. Sherman, at Savannah, 
could go where he pleased, for there was nothing to resist 
him ; and it was evident that he meant to go to Virginia, 
and crush Lee between two armies. Everywhere the 
people of the Confederacy seemed to be worn out and dis- 
couraged by the terrible distresses which they had endured 
for four years ; and so many of the able-bodied men had 
been killed or crippled that it was not easy to find men 
to form new Confederate armies. 

. ON THE OCEAN. 

720. Confederate Privateers continued to destroy Ameri- 
can commerce during the year. Three of them, the 
Alabajua, the Florida, and the Georgia, were captured 
or destroyed, but others took their places. The Alabama, 
Captain Semmes, had put into the harbor of Cherbourg, 
France, to refit, and was there watched by the Kcarsargc, 
Captain Winslow. The two vessels were of equal strength, 
and Semmes sent Winslow a challenge to a sea-fight, 
which was just what Winslow desired. It took place 
(June 19) seven miles off the coast, and was watched by 
many spectators on the shore. The fire of the Alabama 
was fast and wild ; that of the Kcarsargc was slower and 
sure. In an hour the Alabama raised the white flag, and 
twenty minutes afterward she sank. Her captain was 
picked up by an English yacht, and carried to England. ^ 
The Florida was surprised and captured in the neutral 
port of l^ahia by the Wachitscti, Captain Collins. Her 
capture was not legal ; but before anything could be done, 
she was accidentally sunk near Fortress Monroe. The 

^ The superiority of the Kearsar^e s fire caused particular satisfaction in 
the United States, for the Alabama's gunners were from British war-vessels 
(§ 369, note). 



42 2 THE IV A R FOR THE UNION [1864 

Gco7-gia had been sold, and had become an English 
merchant-vessel. The sale was illegal, and the Georgia 
was captured on her first voyage, off Lisbon, by the 
Niagara. 

INTERNAL AFFAIRS. 

721. In the Confederacy, the distress of the preceding 
year had only grown worse (§ 690). Confederate money 
had become almost worthless: one dollar in gold would 
buy fifty dollars of it, so that a one-dollar bill was really 
worth but two cents. Hardly any business was done; 
and every one was waiting for the inevitable end of the 
war. Women and children of course suffered most by the 
destruction of property and the scarcity of food ; but they 
exhibited a wonderful patience under suffering. 

722. In the North and West, comfort and prosperity had 
hardly been checked (§ 691). But, in spite of prosperity, 
the long severity of the war had begun to tell on the 
people. At different times in the year, the President had 
called out a total of about 1,200,000 new men, and many 
persons began to be alarmed by the apparent necessity 
for such numbers of fresh soldiers. It began to be 
believed that there must have been enormous losses in 
the war which had not been made public. In fact, the 
government never received half the number of men it 
called for. Desertions and evasions made up for the rest, 
and this was the fact which was not made public. 

723. Presidential Election The Democrats nominated 

(1864) General McClellan for President, and George H. 
Pendleton, of Ohio, for Vice-President; while the Repub- 
licans nominated President Lincoln, with Andrew John- 
son, of Tennessee, for Vice-President. The Democrats 
declared that the war had been a failure, and ought to 
cease ; but this declaration had hardly been made when 



1865] THE BEGINNING OF THE END 423 

Sherman's advance and the capture of Atkmta, the fight 
in Mobile Bay, and Sheridan's victories in the Shenandoah 
Valley revived the flagging spirit of the people, and 
Lincoln and Johnson were elected. 1 

724. Canada had become a refuge for a number of Con- 
federate agents, who contrived various means of annoying 
the Northern States. They endeavored to release the 
Confederate prisoners who were shut up in camps in the 
North and West, and even to set fire to New York City; 
but they failed.' 

725. Exchange of Prisoners had ceased, for the Confed- 
erate authorities refused to exchange negro soldiers. The 
Union prisoners, shut up amid the misery of the Confed- 
eracy, suffered horribly, particularly at Andersonville, a 
prison near Macon, Georgia. 

726. Nevada, a part of the Mexican session of 1848, 
was admitted to the Union in-<i864. 

(5) Events of 186^. 

CONCLUSION OF THE WAR. 

727. In Mississippi and Alabama several Union columns 
were already moving from place to place, seizing Con- 
federate supplies and arms, and scattering any body of 
Confederate troops that attempted to make head against 
them. The only serious resistance was at Mobile ; and 
that city surrendered in April, after a siege. That really 
ended the war in this section ; but early in May, when 
the war had ended in Virginia and North Carolina, a gen- 
eral surrender of the Confederate troops in Mississippi and 
Alabama was made by General Richard Taylor (§ 734). 

1 Of the 233 electoral votes, Lincoln and Johnson received 212, and 
McClellan and Pendleton 21. 

- In October a number of them rode into the little town of St. Albans, in 
Vermont, and robbed the bank there. 



424 



THE IVAR FOR THE UNION 



[1865 



728. Sherman's Northward March beg-an from Savannah 
(February i). He moved directly north to Columbia, 
which was burned while he held possession of it. Each 
side accused the other of having- burned the city. I'rom 
Columbia, Sherman moved northeast to Fayetteville, fol- 
lowing nearly the same route as that taken by Cornwallis 
in 1781 (§ 251). The Confederate garrisons in Charleston 
and other coast-towns were forced to leave their posts 
and hurry northward ahead of him. Thus the whole 




I Confederate . 

SCALE OF MILES 



20 40 80 120 

Operations in Virginia. 



Atlantic coast was seized by the Union forces. So far, 
Sherman had met little armed resistance, and his princi- 
pal difficulty had been the winter rains and the swollen 
rivers and swamps. Now he had to move more cautiously, 



i<S65] SHERIDAN'S RAID 425 

for he had his old enemy ay;;un before him. Jefferson Davis 
had been forced to call Johnston back to service, and he had 
gathered 40,000 men to dispute Sherman's farther advance. 

729. Johnston's Army was composed of some fragments 
of the scattered Western armies, and of the garrisons of 
Charleston and other coast cities which had been evac- 
uated as Sherman's army passed them. The whole had 
been gathered up by Johnston, and formed into an army. 
He attacked Sherman furiously near Goldsboro (March 
19), and for a time the battle was doubtful. But Sherman 
finally drove Johnston back, and reached Goldsboro. 
Here he was joined by fresh troops from Wilmington, and 
both armies waited for the result of operations in Virginia. 

730. Grant's Opening Movement. — It has already been 
seen that Grant's general plan was to push his line farther 
to the southwest around Petersburgh, and thus, while he 
had men enough to keep his own line strong, force Lee to 
lengthen and weaken his line (§ 704). He made another 
movement in this direction the day before Sherman started 
from Savannah, reaching a little stream called Hatcher's 
Run, and holding his ground. He then waited for 
Sheridan to join him from the Shenandoah valley. 

731. Sheridan, with 10,000 picked cavalry, moved up 
the Shenandoah valley to Staunton, near Lynchburgh. 
There he turned eastward to Charlottesville, scattering 
Early's army on the way. He again moved eastward, 
passing to the north of the defences of Richmond, and 
joined Grant. He had destroyed the canal, the railroad, 
and bridges all the way from Lynchburgh to Richmond, 
and thus cut off much of Lee's supplies. 

732. The Final Advance began March 29, while Sherman 
was resting at Goldsboro. Sheridan made another move- 
ment to the southwest, across Hatcher's Run, to Five 
Forks, and held his ground. Lee again lengthened his 



426 



THE IV^R FOR THE UNION 



[1865 



liiirai ■iiiir|iiiii I ■■I If IB ■ I ( im /;«« 1 fi (■»? 111 iiiii 



line to meet this new danger ; but the hne was now so 

long- that his 50,000 
men could not guard it. 
Grant at once advanced 
his whole line, 100,000 
strong, and burst his 
way through Lee's line 
of intrcnchments (April 
2). Lee retreated west- 
ward during the night, 
a n d Richmond and 
Petersburgh were en- 
tered by the Union 
troops. Jefferson Davis 
and the Confederate 
government escaped by 
railroad to North Caro- 
lina.^ 

733. Lee's Surrender. 
— Lee's line of retreat 
was westward, between 
the James and Appo- 
mattox rivers, toward Lynchburgh. From this place he 
hoped to make his way 
south into North Caro- 
lina, and join Johnston. 
But Grant's army was in 
hot pursuit; and, before 
Lee could reach Lynch- 
burgh, Sheridan had 
passed him and inter- signatures of gkant and lee. 

posed between him and that place. Lee's retreat was 

* Davis was captured in Georgia the next month, and was imprisoned in 
Fortress Monroe for two years. He was then released without trial. 
United States did not put any one to death for treason. 




I'niLU' H. Shkkidan. 




The 



1865] GENERAL SURRENDER 42? 

cut off; his men were few, hungry, and worn out; and he 
surrendered the Confederate forces in Virginia, at a Httle 
place called Appomattox Court-house (April 9). Grant 
asked no terms of surrender that were not generous. 
Lee's troops were only to promise to bear arms no longer 
against the United States. They were to give up public 
property, except that they were to keep their horses for 
use in the spring ploughing. 

734. General Surrender. — Sherman at once pushed for- 
ward from Goldsboro, and occupied Raleigh. Here 
Johnston surrendered his army (April 26). His men, like 
Lee's, were dismissed on giving their word to do no 
further act of war. The other Confederate forces east of 
the Mississippi surrendered early in May, followed toward 
the end of the same month by those west of the Missis- 
sippi. They received the same terms as those given to 
the armies of Lee and Johnston. The war was over, and 
the soldiers of the Confederacy went quietly back to their 
desolated homes, there to begin a new struggle, not 
against the Union, but against poverty. 

735. The Grand Review. — The victorious armies of 
Grant and Sherman, numbering about 150,000 men, were 
reviewed in Washington, near the end of May, by their 
commanders and the officers of the government. For 
two days the long line of sunburnt veterans marched 
through the principal street, accompanied by the music 
of military bands, flowers, and the cheers of spectators 
from all parts of the country. The disbanding of the 
army then began (§ 752). The regiments were given 
similar triumphal receptions on their arrival in their own 
States, and the companies on their arrival at their homes. ^ 



' In 1866 the veterans formed an association, under the name of " The 
Grand Army of the Republic." 



42 8 THE IV A R FOR THE UNION [1865 



DEATH OF PRESIDENT LIN'COLN. 

736. Public Rejoicings were continued in the North and 
West for nearly a week after Lee's surrender. The firing 
of cannon, public meetings, processions, and the illumina- 
tion of houses showed the joy of the people that the war 
was not only over, but successfully over. In it all there 
was a general feeling of gratitude to President Lincoln 
for his share in the work. He had entered Washington, 
four years before, almost unknown : now he was recog- 
nized as a wise, prudent, and great-hearted leader of men. 
In all the ups and downs of the war, he had not lost his 
temper, his courage, or his self-control, and he had 
always done the sensible thing at the fit time. The more 
the people had come to know him, the more they had 
loved and trusted him. 

737. The Assassination of the President A conspiracy 

had been formed by a number of persons in and near 
Washington to kill the leading officers of the government, 
in order to throw national affairs into confusion and give 
the Confederacy a last chance. Its leader, John Wilkes 
Booth, seems to have been crazed by a desire to be talked 
about, and some of his associates w^ere at least weak- 
minded. The President had avoided military guards and 
protection throughout the war, and his fearlessness made 
him an easy victim. One of his few pleasures, when 
tired out, was to attend the theatre. On the appointed 
night, Booth stole into the private box where the Presi- 
dent was sitting, and shot him through the head from 
behind, so that he died the next day (April 15, 1865). 
Another conspirator had attacked Secretary Seward, who 
was ill and in bed, but only wounded him. Booth was 
chased into lower Maryland, and killed in a barn in which 



i865] 



MILITARY SUMMARY 



429 



he had hidden himself. The other conspirators were 
arrested, four of them hanged and four imprisoned. 

738. The Funeral of the President lasted for about three 
weeks. The body was taken ^^ 
slowly to New York City, 
and thence westward to his 
home in Springfield, Illinois. 
All business was stopped in 
the cities on the route, and 
the whole people joined in 
the ceremonies. His late 
enemies in the seceding 
States lamented his death, 
for the}' had come to see 
that he had never cherished 
hatred of them because of 

their conduct, and that his wiluam h. sewakd. 

murder was the worst calamity that could have befallen 
them. 

739. Andrew Johnson, the Vice-President, became Presi- 
dent at Lincoln's death. As Lincoln had served but 
little more than a month of his second four years, his 
second term will be considered as Johnson's administra- 
tion. 




MILITARY SUMMARY OF THE WAR, 



740. The Course of the War seems to fall naturally into 
two parts. hV)r the first two years the Federal Govern- 
ment was busied in fixing its encircling lines and in 
winning territory piecemeal from the Confederacy. For 
the last two years its energies were bent on seeking and 
defeating the principal Confederate armies. The turning- 
point of the war was in July, I 863 (§ 689) ; and the lead- 



43° THE IV A R FOR. THE UNION [1865 

ing Union generals at the end were not those who had 
led at the beginning. 

741. Events of 1861 (§ 632). — The principal battles of 
1 861 were those of 13ull Run (July 21) and Wilson's Creek 
(August 10), in both of which the Union forces were 
defeated. But the Union armies had seized and held a 
v'ast extent of doubtful territory, so that the Confederacy 
was much smaller than had been expected ; and opera- 
tions on the Atlantic coast had been fairly commenced at 
Port Royal. 

742. Events of 1862 (§ 639). — Two attempts were made 
this year by the Confederate armies to break through the 
encircling line, by Bragg in August and by Lee in Sep- 
tember. Both were defeated. The great battles in the 
East were tne Seven Days' Battles in June and July, 
Antietam (September 17), and Fredericksburgh (Decem- 
ber 13). Of these, Antietam was the only decisive Union 
victory. The great battles in the West were Fort Donel- 
son (February 16), Pittsburgh Landing (April 6-^), and 
Murfreesboro (December 31), all Union victories. The 
capture of New Orleans (April 28) was also a most im- 
portant Union success. The result of the year's operations 
was the winning of a great amount of territory in the 
West, but the Confederate armies were still as strong and 
as confident as ever. 

743. Events of 1863 (§ 674). — In the East the principal 
battles were Chancellorsville (May 2-3), a Confederate 
victory; and Gettysburgh (July 1-3), a Union victory, 
which defeated the last great attempt, by Lee, to break 
through the encircling line. In the West, a Confederate 
army was captured at Vicksburgh (July 4), the Mississippi 
was opened, and the Confederacy was divided. The 
Confederate victory of Chickamauga (September 19-20) 
was followed by the Union victories of Lookout Mountain 



1S65] MILITARY SUMMARY 431 

and Missionary Ridge (November 23-25). The advan- 
tages of the year's operations in the West were altogether 
with the Union forces, and the Confederate armies in that 
section for the first time began to show a falHng off in 
strength and confidence. 

744. Events of 1864 (§ 697). — The great battles in the 
East were the Wilderness battles and Cold Harbor in May 
and June, ending in the siege of Petersburgh, which lasted 
until the end of the war. While it was going on, the 
western army of the Confederacy was blotted out at Nash- 
ville (December 15); and Sherman, with hardly an enemy 
before him, had reached Savannah on his way northward 
to crush Lee. 

745. Events of 1865 (§ 727). — Sherman's march north- 
ward from Savannah in February swept up before it all 
the available forces of the Confederacy into a great trap, 
from which there was no escape. But Sherman took care 
not to push fast or far enough to drive Johnston and Lee 
close together. The operations of the two Union generals 
were so timed as to prevent the scattered Confederate 
forces from uniting into one army. One by one they 
were forced to surrender (Lee April 9, and Johnston 
April 26) ; and the war was over. 

746. The Armies on both sides were large. The num- 
ber of men called into the Union armies during the war 
was 2,942,748; and 2,690,401 of these entered the army, 
some for three months, some for six months, and some 
for one year, two years, or three years. The largest 
number in service at one time was in May, 1865 : it was 
then 1,000,516, of whom 650,000 were fit for active 
service. The Union navy grew steadily larger until the 
end of the war, when it numbered 700 vessels, 60 of them 
ironclads, and 50,000 sailors. The Confederacy did not 
need so many men as the h^ederal Government, for it had 



432 THE IV AR FOR THE UNION [1865 

no conquered territory to ijarrison, and could move its 
men quickly from one army to another. The total Con- 
federate force was probably about 1,300,000, and the 
largest number at one time was in January, 1863. The 
following table is given from a careful writer, as the 
number at the dates named. The Southern figures are 
estimates. 

United States. Confederacy. 

January i, 1861 . 16,367 

July I, 1 86 1 186,751 150,000 

January i, 1862 575.917 350,000 

January i, 1863 918,191 690,000 

January i, 1864 860,737 400,000 

January i, 1865 959,460 250,000 

March 31, 1865 980,086 175,000 

May I, 1865 1,000,516 

747. The Dead numbered about 300,000 on each side. 
The Union losses are known, and are given below: the 
Southern losses are still uncertain. National cemeteries 
have been laid out on various battle-fields, in which the 
bodies of the dead have been collected; and many cities 
and towns have their soldiers' monuments. Liberal 
pensions are paid to wounded Union soldiers, and to the 
families of the dead.i 

748. The Cost of the War cannot be figured up. The 
tax receipts of the United States, 1 861-65, were about 
$780,000,000, most of which was spent on the war; 
and, in addition to this, there was at the end of the war 
a national debt of $2,850,000,000. If we try to add to 

1 In the Union armies there were killed in battle, 44,238; died of wounds, 
49,205; died of disease, 186,216; suicide, homicide, and executions, 526; 
unknown causes, 24,184: total, 304,369. Of these there were only 7 execu- 
tions. In Confederate prisons, 26,168 are known to have died, but thou 
sands of others have since died of disease contracted during imprisonment. 
There are buried in the national cemeteries 318,870 bodies; but some ol 
these were Confederate soldiers. 



1S65] LEADING E VENTS 433 

this (i) the expenses and tlcbts of States, cities, and 
towns; (2) the payments for pensions; (3) the expenses 
of the Confederacy, which are not fully known ; (4) the 
destruction of private property in the South by Union 
armies, and on the ocean by Confederate privateers ; and 
the destruction of productive energy in the loss of men ; 
the total cost of the war passes beyond possibility of 
estimate. 

749. The Object of this enormous expenditure of blood 
and money by the nation was not to show which section 
was the stronger, for nearly every one knew before- 
hand that the North was the stronger. It was not to 
show which had the braver men, for the soldiers on both 
sides came out of the war with an equal respect for each 
others' bravery. It was not to satisfy any hatred of 
the North against the South, for there was no such 
thing. It was not to abolish slavery, though slavery was 
abolished as a part of the war. The object of the war 
was to keep the nation one, to prevent any future attempt 
to secede, and to see to it that there should not be two 
nations in place of one, w^aging w^ars with one another, 
and taxing men, women, and children to carry them on. 
This was the object for which the Union men fought 
and, when necessary, died: to secure perpetual peace and 
a united nation to their children and their children's 
children forever. 

750. The Leading Events of Lincoln's administration, 
including the war for the Union, are as follows: 

(U., Union victory; C, Confederate victory; Ind., indecisive.) 

1861-5 : Linc(^ln'rf Term of Office § 620 

1 861: Fort Sumter, S. C. , evacuated, April 

13 (C.) 622 

Volunteers called for by the President, 

April 15 623 



434 THE IV A R FOR THE UNION [i 86 1-2 

1861 : First bloodshed at Baltimore, April 19 § 623 
Capture of Norfolk navy yard, April 

20 (C.) 649 

Secession of four border States, Way 

and June 626 

Meeting of Congress, July 4 631 

Battle of Rich Mountain, W. Va., 

July II (U. ) 630 

Battle of Bull Run, Va., July 21 (C). 632 
Battle ot Wilson's Creek, Mo., August 

io(C.) 635 

Capture of Fort Hatteras, N. C. , Aug. 

29 (U.) 636 

Battle of Ball's Bluff, Va., Oct. 21 (C.) 634 
Capture of Port Royal, S. C. , Nov. 

7 (U.) 636 

Trent affair, November 8 638 

1862: Battle of Mill Spring, Ky., January 19 

(U.) 640 

Capture of Fort Henry, Tenn., Feb. 

6 (U.) 640 

Capture of Roanoke Island, N. C. , 

Feb. 8 (U.) 652 

Capture of Fort Donel.son, Tenn., Feb. 

16 (U.) 640 

Battle of Pea Ridge, Ark., March 

5-8 (U.) 647 

Battle of Monitor and JMernmac, March 

9(U.) 651 

Battle of Pittsburgh Landing or Shiloh, 

Tenn., April 6-7 (U. ) 642 

Capture of Island Number Ten, April 

7(U.) .^ 648 

Capture of Fort Pulaski, Ga. , April 

II (U.) 652 

Capture of New Orleans, La., April 

25 (U.) 655 

Capture of Yorktown, Va,, INIay 4 (U. ) 659 
Battle of Williamsburgh, Va. , l\Iav 5 

(Ind.) '... 659 

Capture of Corinth, Miss., May 30 (U. ) 643 
Battle of Fair Oaks, Va., May 31 (U.) 660 



1S62-3] LEADING l-yENTS 435 

1862: lackson'sraid on I^anks, Va., June(C'. ) § '162 
Seven Days' Battles, Va., June 25-luly 

I (Ind.) ^>63 

Pope's campaic^n, \^i. , August (C. ). . . 664 
Second battle of Bull Run, Va. , Aug. 

30 (C.) ^'^'4 

Capture of Harpers l^erry, W. \a., 

Sept. 15 (C.) 665 

Battle of Antietam, Md., September 

17 (U.) 666 

Bragg's invasion of Kentucky, Sep- 
tember 644 

Battle of Perryville, Ky., Oct. 8 

(Ind.) ' 644 

Battle of Fredericksburgh, Va. , Dec. 

13 (C-) ^^67 

First attempt on \ icksburgh. Miss., 

Dec. 29 (C.) 680 

Battle of Murfreesboro, Tenn., Dec. 

31 to Jan. 2 (U.) 645 

1863: Emancipation Proclamation, January i 669 

Draft Act passed, INIarch 3 693 

Fort Sumter, S. C. , attacked by iron- 
clads, April 7 (C.) 688 

Grant's campaign before Vicksburgh, 

Miss., May i to 17 (U.) 682 

Battle of Chancel I orsville, Va., May 

2-3 (C.) 674 

Battle of Wechawkeji and Atlanta, June 

17 (U.) 688 

Admission of West Virginia, June 20.. 694 
Lee's second invasion of tlie North, 

June 675 

Battle of Gettvsburgh, Pa., fulv 1-3 

(U.) ' 677 

Capture of Vicksburgh, Miss., July 4 

(U.) ' 682 

Battle of Helena, Ark., July 4 (U.). . . 683 
Capture of Port Hudson, La., July 9 

(U.) 682 

Draft Riots, New Vork City, July 

13-16 693 



43^ THE 1VAR FOR THE UNION [1863-4 

1S63: Morgan's Ohio raid, July § 684 

Battle of Chickamauga, Ga. ,Sept. 19- 

20 (C.) 685 

Siege of Chattanooga, Tenn., Oct. and 

Nov ." 686 

Siege of Knoxville, Tenn., Nov. 18-29 686 
Battle of Lookout Mountain, Tenn., 

Nov. 24-25 (U.) 687 

1864: Forrest's raid, Miss, and Tenn., Feb- 
ruary 717 

Grant made lieutenant-general, March 3 698 
Red River expedition. La., April (C). 715 
Capture of Fort Pillow, Tenn., April 

12 (C.) 717 

Battles of the Wilderness, Va., INIay 

5-7 (Ind.) \ 701 

Battles at Spottsylvania Court-house, 

Va., May 8-18 (Ind.) 701 

Battle of Resaca, Ga., May 14-15 (U.) 706 
Battle of Dalla.s, Ga., May 25-28 (U.) 706 
Battle of Cold Harbor, Va. , June 3 (C. ) 702 
Siege of Peter.sburgh, Va. , begun, June 704 
Battle of Kearsai-ge and Alabama, June 

19 (U.) 720 

Battle of Kenesaw IMountain, Ga. , 

June 27 (U.) 706 

Battles before Atlanta, Ga., July 20 • 

28 (U.) ' 709 

Early's raid on Washington, July 703 

Battle of Mobile Bay, Ala., August 5 

(U.) 718 

Capture of Atlanta, Cia. , September 2 

(u.).... 709 

Battle of \\ inchester, Va. , September 

19 (U.) 705 

Battle of Cedar Creek, Va. , October 

19 (U.) 705 

Admi.ssion of Nevada, October 31 ... . 726 
Sherman's march to the sea, Nov. and 

Dec 713 

Battle of Franklin, Tenn., November 

30 (U.) 711 



1864-5] LEADING Hl^ENTS 437 

1864 : Capture of Fort McAllister, (ia. , Dec. 

13 C-'.)-- •• § 714 

Battle of Nashville, Tenn., Dec. 15- 



16 (U. 



I I 



Capture of Savannah, Ga,, December 

21 (U.) 714 

1865: Capture of Fort Fisher, N. C. , [an. 15 

(U.).; ." 716 

Sherman's march northward, Feb. and 

March 728 

Columbia, S. C, captured, February 

17 (U.) 728 

Charleston, S. C. , captured, Feb. 18 

(U.) 72^ 

Wilmington, N. C. , captured, Feb. 21 

(U.) 716 

Battle of Goldsboro, N. C, March ly 

(U.).. 729 

Sheridan's raid on Lvnchburgh, Va. , 

March 731 

Battle of Five Forks, Va., April i (U.) 732 
Petersburgh, Va. , captured, April 2 

(U.) 732 

Richmond, Va., captured, April 3 (U.) 732 

Surrender of Lee, April 9 j^t, 

Assassination of Lincoln, April 14. . . . 737 

Surrender of Johnston, April 26 734 

Jefferson Davis captured. May 11 (note) 732 

General surrender, April and May. . . . 734 

Topics for Further vStudy. 

1. Detailed study of a battle. 

2. Detailed study of a campaign. 

3. The military career of a leading general. 

4. The strategic importance of the Mississippi. 

5. West Point graduates in the war. 

6. Drafts. 

7. The government of the Confederate States. 

8. Lincoln as a representative American. 



43^ THE IV A R. FOR THE UNION [i 86 1-5 



Supplementary Reading. 

Sources. — The great series known as War of the Rebellion, 
Official Records, still in course of publication, and the Congres- 
sional documents, are the primary authorities for the history of 
the Civil War; but they are difificult to use for other than 
detailed study. Moore's Rebellion Record \s a smaller and very 
useful collection. McPherson's History of the Rebellion is the 
most important single volume. ]\Iany important documents 
are given in X\\it American Annual CyclopLedia, 1861—65. "^^e 
writings and memoirs of the principal actors are indispensable: 
among the most important are the collected works of Lincoln, 
Seward, and Sumner, and the memoirs of Grant, Sherman, and 
Sheridan. The contemporary pictures in Harper s Weekly and 
Frank Leslie' s Weekly are instructive. 

Narrative Accounts.— The literature of the Civil War is 
enormous. The best military history, as far as it goes, is 
Ropes's Story of the Civil War : unfortunately the narrative 
stops with 1862. Of the larger comprehensive histories, that 
of Rhodes is the best. Dodge's Bird' s-Eye View of Our Civil 
War is the best single-volume account. The History of the 
Civil War by the Comte de Paris, Battles and Leaders of the 
Civil War (Century Co. ), and Campaigns of the Civil War 
(Scribner's Sons), are important. The most elaborate bio- 
graphical treatment of the period is Nicolay and Hay's Lincohi. 
There are numerous biographies of leaders on both sides, among 
the most important being Badeau's Grant, Mahan's Far r a gut, 
and Cooke's Robert E. I^ee and Stonewall facksoft. The 
volumes in the Great Commanders series are useful, but differ 
much in merit. 

The political phases of Lincoln's administration are treated 
at length in the histories of Von Hoist, Schouler, and Rhodes, 
and Nicolay and Hay's LJncoln. To these should be added 
Callender's Thaddeus Stevens, Barnes' s Thurlow Weed, Gorham's 
Stanton, Bigelow's Samuel f. Lilden, C. F. Adams's Charles 
Francis Adams, Greeley' s Afuerican Conflict, and Blaine's Twenty 
Years of Cotigress. On the slavery issue see also Wilson's Slave 
Power and Garrisons' William Lloyd Garrison. The American 
Annual Cyclopaedia has marked value for reference. 

Illustrative Literature. — Moore's 7^he Civil War in Song 
and Story; G. C. Eggleston's American War Ballads and Lyrics; 
W. G. Simms's War Poetry of the South; Alcott's Hospital 



1 86 1 -5] SUPPLEMENTARY READING 439 

Ske/ches; J. E. Cooke's Hill to Hilt and Wearing of the Gray; 
Cable's War Diary of a Union Woinan in the South; C. C. 
Coffin's Winning his Way; Stephen Crane's Red Badge of 
Courage; jM. E. M. Davis's In War Time at La Rose Blanche; 
W. L. Goss's/^^/; J. C. Harris's On the Plantation; S. Weir 
Mitchell's In War Time and Rolafid Blake; T. N. Page's Jwo 
Little Confederates and Among the Ca?nps; E. C. Stedman's 
Alice of Monmouth; Townsend's Katy of Catoctin; Bryant's Our 
Countrf s Call, The Death of Slavery, and Abraham Lincoln; 
Holmes's In War Time; Longfellow's The Cumberland ; Lowell's 
Harvard Co?nmemoration Ode and JSIemoricB Positum; T. E. 
Read's Sheridan's Ride; Whittier's In War Time; Whitman's 
3Iy Captain. 



CHAPTER XX 



RECONSTRUCTION 



(I) Johnson's Administration: 1865-9 

Andrew Johnson, Tennessee, Vice-President and President. 

751. The New President. — Andrew Johnson, elected 
Vice-President with Lincohi, became President at Lin- 

cohi's death. He was 
'^ from Tennessee, a "poor 
white," who had worked 
his way upward until he 
had been sent to Con- 
gress, had become Gov- 
ernor of his State, and 
was then sent to the 
United States Senate. 
He was an outspoken 
Union man, who held to 
the Union even after his 
State seceded; and, al- 
though he had always 
been a Democrat, the 
Republicans nominated 
him in 1864 in order to 
get the votes of those 
Democrats who sup- 
ported the war. In this 
they were only repeating the mistake of Tyler's case 

440 




Anukew Johnson. 



1865] DISBANDING THE ARMY 44^ 

(vj 500). Johnson wished to punish the rich and inilucn- 
tial Southern leaders ; but he cared little about the ne^n'oes 
who had been set free by the war. The Republicans 
were determined to protect the freedmen, even if they had 
to punish the secedinj^'- States in order to do it; while 
Johnson was determined that the States should not be 
punished. Johnson was a passionate man, and hasty of 
speech; and he soon managed to bring about a quarrel 
with Congress, which lasted throughout his term of office. 
His term had scarcely begun before every one saw what 
a terrible misfortune it had been to lose the wise, kindly, 
large-hearted and large-minded Lincoln when the country 
needed him so much. 

( I ) Rccoiistnictioii. 

752. Disbanding the Army. — Many persons had thought 
that it would be very dangerous to break up the armies 
at the end of the war; that the million of soldiers would 
neither seek nor find work, but would join in lawless com- 
panies for robbery. Nothing of the kind followed. The 
men, except about 50,000, who were retained as a stand- 
ing army, were paid off and sent home at the rate of 
300,000 a month. The old soldiers turned out to be 
better lawyers, editors, managers, and workmen than they 
had been before the war, through the habits of prompt 
obedience learned in the army. 

753. The Problem of Reconstruction. — Some of the most 
difficult questions of American history presented them- 
selves in the six years from 1865 to 1 871, in which the 
American people tried to straighten out a state of affairs 
which had been completely tangled by the Civil War and 
its results. The first question was, What should be done 
with the voters of the seceding States } The Northern 



442 RECONSTRUCTION [^^65 

States were each divided politically among two nearly 
equal parties, one party controlling some States and the 
other party controlling the others. But Southern voters 
had for years thought of hardly anything in politics except 
the defence of slavery. All the Southern States were thus 
in the habit of acting together: they formed what is now 
often called a "solid South." They had so nearly a 
majority of both Houses of Congress that a very little held 
from parts of the North would at once give them control 
of the government, and the power to make laws as to the 
national debt, pensions, and other expenses of the war. 
And yet there was no express law to prevent them from 
taking part at once in the government. It was, in fact, 
equally hard to let them in or to keep them out. 

754. The President's Feeling. — President Johnson was 
always a hearty Union man. He had expressed great 
anxiety to hang some of the Confederate leaders, and his 
first act as President was to offer large rewards for the 
capture of Davis and other leaders, on the charge of 
planning Lincoln's murder. But Johnson had been a 
Southern ' ' poor white ' ' : his feeling was altogether one 
of hostility to the richer Southerners who had brought about 
the war; and he had no great anxiety for the protection 
of the "freedmen." ^ He was what was called a War 
Democrat: that is, he was anxious to maintain the Union, 
but equally anxious that the States should each be free 
from interference by the Union. It was certain from the 

^ "Freedmen" was the usual name for the former slaves, set free by the 
war. During the war they were often called "contrabands," a name said 
to have been invented by General Butler. Runaway slaves had come into 
his camp, and the law directed him to return them to their owners, a thing 
which he was determined not to do. He got over the difficulty by declar- 
ing the slaves "contraband of war," like gunpowder, or any other valuable 
war material, which must not be allowed to pass into the enemy's posses- 
sion. 



1865] JOHNSON'S POLICY 443 

bc[;"inninL^ that he would never consent "to keep the 
seceding; States out." 

755. The Southern State Governments, when Johnson 
became President, were in complete confusion. The 
Union cavalry forces were ranging through the South, 
capturing governors and other leading men, and sending 
them to forts for safe-keeping. They were eventually 
released after a short imprisonment ; but at the time no 
one was quite sure that the Confederate leaders would not 
all be hanged or shot for treason. Every Southern man 
who could have been of service in government was only 
anxious to keep out of the way, and almost all semblance 
of government disappeared. The first business was to 
get some form of government that would maintain 
order. 

756. The President's Plan of reconstruction was, first, 
to appoint provisional, or temporary, governors for each 
State. These governors called conventions of delegates, 
elected by the white people, the former voters. These 
conventions, when they met, did three things: they 
repealed or declared void the ordinances of secession, 
promised never to pay any debt incurred in supporting the 
Confederacy, and ratified the Thirteenth Amendment, 
abolishing slavery, which Congress had proposed early in 
1865. Before the end of the year 1865, all the govern- 
ments of the seceding States had been reorganized accord- 
ing to the President's plan, or " my policy," as he often 
called it. Virginia, Tennessee, Louisiana, and Arkansas 
had already been reorganized, in much the same manner, 
under President Lincoln, and were not interfered with. 

757. The Thirteenth Amendment, forever abolishing 
slavery, having been ratified b}' three-fourths of the States, 
was declared a part of the Constitution in December, 
1865. It was necessary because the Emancipation 



444 RECONSTRUCTION [1866 

rroclamation (^^ 669) had only freed the slaves, but did 
not prevent a new establishment of slaver)'. 

758. The Treatment of the Freedmen was a difficult 
matter to manage. The Southern people did not believe 
that the freedmen would willingly work now that they no 
longer had the slave-driv^er to force them to it. The laws 
passed by the new governments of the seceding States 
were, therefore, usually designed to force the freedmen to 
work under penalt)' of being declared vagrants and sent 
to jail and hard labor. To most of the Northern people 
this looked very much like setting up slavery again under 
a new name ; and their representatives in Congress, when 
Congress met in December, 1865, refused for the time to 
admit any members from the seceding States. 

759. A New Issue Avas thus brought into politics. The 
President thought that the Republican majority in Con- 
gress had no more right to keep out members from the 
seceding States than those States had to attempt to leave 
the Union. He was supported by the Northern Demo- 
crats, and also by the Southern people, who did not count 
for much, however, so long as their representatives were 
not admitted. The Republicans had a two-thirds majority 
in both Houses of Congress, sufficient to pass laws over 
the President's veto. They had not yet formed any plan: 
they were only determined not to admit the Southern 
members until the safety of the freedmen should be made 
certain. In this they were supported by the Republican 
party of the North ; and the whole struggle turned upon 
the elections in i 866 for the Congress which was to meet 
in 1867. 

760. The Congressional Elections of 1866 resulted in the 
complete success of the Republicans. They were to have 
the same two-thirds majority in the next Congress, and 
for the next two years could pass such laws as they 



i868] RHCONSTRUCriON ACTS 445 

tliought best, without any obstruction from the President's 
veto. They had now more fully formed their plan of 
reconstruction, and were able to carry it into effect. 
Tennessee was readmitted to the Union in 1866, and its 
members were received by Congress. The State had 
been reorganized in such a manner that the rights of the 
freedmen seemed quite secure. The plan of Congress 
had two leading purposes: the freedmen were to vote; 
and the Confederate leaders were not to vote. These 
purposes were to be reached by putting all the seceding 
States under military governors, who should call new 
conventions to form State governments. The power to 
vote for delegates to these conventions was given to the 
freedmen, but not to the leading Confederates. If the 
new forms of government should allow freedmen to vote, 
and if the new governments should ratify the Fourteenth 
Amendment (§ 763), which denied to the leading Con- 
federates the pov/er to hold office. Congress would admit 
the Southern Senators and Representatives. 

761. The Reconstruction Acts were passed by Congress 
in March, 1867, over the veto of the President. They 
embodied the plan of Congress, as just explained ; and 
the President executed them by appointing the military 
governors. These governors, supported by portions of 
the army, took care that in forming the new governments 
freedmen should be allowed to vote, and leading Confed- 
erates should be forbidden to vote. 

762. The Work of Reconstruction went on through the 
years 1867 and 1868; and in June, 1868, six States were 
readmitted to representation in Congress: Alabama, 
Arkansas, Florida, Louisiana, North Carolina, and South 
Carolina. It is not difficult to understand why the Recon- 
struction Acts were bitterly disliked by the Southern 
whites, for they made the negroes, who had been slaves 



446 RECONSTRUCTION [1868 

but two years before, equal or superior to their former 
masters. It was hoped in the North that the freedmen 
would be made secure by having the right to vote for 
representatives in the State governments. We shall see 
hereafter how this resulted (§ 789). But for the first few 
years the whites were powerless, and the freedmen had 
their full share in the government. Four States, Georgia, 
Mississippi, Texas, and Virginia, refused to yield, and 
were not readmitted until 1870 (§788). Tennessee had 
been admitted in 1866 (§ 760). 

763. The Fourteenth Amendment, proposed by Congress 
in I S66, was ratified and became a part of the Constitu- 
tion in July, 1868. It provided that no State should take 
away the privileges of citizens of the United States ; that 
the higher class of Confederate office-holders should hold 
no office until pardoned by Congress ; that the debt of the 
United States should be paid in full; and that the Con- 
federate debt should never be paid. By "privileges of 
citizens ' ' was meant the right of the freedmen to be 
treated exactly like whites in making and enforcing laws. 

764. The Reconstructed Governments at once took con- 
trol of their States. Their State constitutions, as has been 
stated, allowed the freedmen to vote, while they forbade 
the leading Confederates to vote or hold office until par- 
doned by Congress. The negroes, with a few white 
leaders, voted together; the majority of the whites also 
voted together; and thus the voting population of the 
seceding States was divided on "the color line." The 
unhappy results were very soon visible (§ 789). 



(2) IiiipcacJniioit. 

765. The President and Congress — While Congress was 
thus successfully carr)'ing out its plan of reconstruction, 



I.S67 



TENURE OF OfTICF ACT 



447 



its quarrel with the President was steadily growing more 
bitter. Bill after bill was passed by Congress, vetoed by 
the President, and at once passed over the veto. The 
President was a passionate man and hasty of speech. He 
believed that the Republican majority in Congress was 
keeping the Southern members out only in order to be 
able to pass bills over his veto; and he did not hesitate to 
express his dislike of Congress in public speeches. Of 
course this made Congress still more ready to pass bills 
which were disagreeable to him. 

766. The Tenure of Office Act was passed b}^ Congress 
in March, 1867, o\er the President's veto. It forbade 
the President to remove 



the higher grades of 
office-holders without 
asking and receiving the 
consent of the Senate. 
Johnson, believing that 
the Constitution gave 
Congress no power to 
pass such an act, deter- 
mined to disobey it. He 
removed Stanton, the 
Secretary of War, and 
when the Senate refused 

to consent to the re- Euwin M. Stanton. 

moval, the President paid no attention to the refusal, and 
ordered Stanton's successor to take possession of the 
office. 

767. The Impeachment of the President followed at once. 
The House of Representatives voted to impeach him ; that 
is, to accuse liim of having disobeyed the laws, and of 
being unfit to be President. An imi)eachment must be 
tried by the Senate, and it is necessar)- that two-thirds of 




^- 



448 RECONSTRUCTION [1868 

the Senators should vote to sustain the charges in order 
to convict the accused. In this case there was a long 
trial before the Senate, and the vote was 35 for to 19 
against conviction. This was not a two-thirds vote, and 
the President was acquitted. 

768. The Presidential Election of 1 863 turned on Recon- 
struction, as it had been managed by Congress. The 
Republicans supported it, and nominated Grant, and 
Schuyler Colfax, of Indiana. The Democrats opposed 
it, and nominated Horatio Seymour, of New York, and 
Frank P. Blair, of Missouri. The Republicans were suc- 
cessful, and Grant and Colfax were elected.^ 

(3) Internal Affairs. 

769. The National Debt, at the end of the war, was 
about $2,850,000,000 (§ 748). Other governments have 
debts as large, or larger; but they do not always feel it 
necessary to pay them promptly. The American people, 
on the contrary, now attacked their debt as vigorously as 
if it had been a hostile army in the field. Taxes on im- 
ported goods were not decreased for fear of foreign com- 
petition in manufactures ; and whatever money could be 
spared out of the large receipts of the government was 
applied to paying off the debt. Before the armies were 
quite disbanded, $30,000,000 had been paid; and this 
policy continued to be perseveringly followed up. 

770. Mexico, at the end of the war, was still occupied 
by French troops, against the will of the Mexicans 
(§ 695). The United States now began to urge their 
withdrawal in more decided language, and France con- 

' Of the 294 electoral votes, Grant and Colfax received 214, and Sey- 
mour and Blair 80. Mississippi, Texas, and Virginia were not allowed 
to vote, as they had not yet been " reconstructed " and n-udniitted. 



1S67] INTERNAL AFFAIRS 449 

scnted to take them away. The United States liad no 
objection to Maximilian's remaining" as emperor, if the 
Mexicans wished it. I le refused to leave with the French 
troops, and, in 1867, was captured and shot by the 
Mexicans. The United States asked that his life should 
be spared, but the request was refused. 

771. The Fenians were a body of men of Irish birth who 
felt that they had grievances against Great Britain. Most 
of them had served in the army, had grown fond of 
soldiering, and now wanted "a brush with the British." 
Canada was a part of the British Empire, and about 
1,500 of the Fenians invaded it in 1866 from Buffalo. 
As there was no war between the United States and Great 
Britain, Americans could not be allowed to make war on 
their own account; and the President promptly interfered, 
and stopped the movement. 

772. The Atlantic Telegraph. — The telegraph had not 
been in operation long before it was found that lines could 
be worked under water. This suggested the idea of a 
line from America to Europe, over the flat bed of the 
Atlantic Ocean between Ireland and Newfoundland. 
Such a line had been laid (1857), but failed to work long. 
It was now tried again, and proved a success (1866). 
Other cables of the kind have since been laid, so that it 
is now hardly possible that any accident should entirely 
break off telegraphic communication between the United 
States and Europe. 

773. Alaska was bought from Russia in 1867 for 
$7,200,000. As it is the last addition on the mainland 
of North America, a table is given here, showing the 
original territory of the United States, and the successive 
additions. 



45° RECONSTRUCTION [1869 

Square Miles. 

United States in 1783 (§ 263) 827,844 

Louisiana, 1803 (§ 334) i, 171,931 

Florida, 1819 (§414) 59,268 

Texas, 1845 (§ 516) 376,133 

Mexican Cession, 1848 (§ 543) 545,783 

Gadsden Purchase, 1853 (§ 544) 45,535 

Alaska, 1867 (§ 773) 577,39° 

Total in 1 894 3, 603, 884 

774. Nebraska. — Nebraska, a part of the Louisiana pur- 
chase (§§ 334, 573), was admitted as a State (1867), with 
the provision that it should allow negroes to vote. 



(II) Grant's Administrations: 1869-77 

TTiv-cc-ccQ r-o.x,.,- 111 T>-„„;j„„v ( ScHUYLHR Colfax, Ind., Vice-President, 1860-73. 

Ulysses S. Grant, 111., President. -^ ^^^^^^ Wilson, Mass., Vice-President, .873-77: 

(1) Foreign Affairs. 

775. The New President. — General Ulysses S. Grant, 
who left his place as head of the army to become Presi- 
dent in 1869, was then nearly fifty years old, and in the 
prime and vigor of life. As a general, his strong point 
had been his determination, and it was on this that the 
country relied in making him President. It wanted as 
President a man who would hold everything that could 
be held of what had been secured by the war, in the 
supremacy of the national authority and in the rights of 
the freedmen ; and it is not easy to name any one who 
would have done this work better than Grant. 

776. The Alabama Claims were an outgrowth of the 
Civil War. That every nation was bound to prevent 
persons living in its territory from waging war against a 
friendly nation was the claim of the United States. Great 
Britain had not been properly careful to prevent the 



iSyi] THE TREATY OF JVASHINGTON 45 ^ 

Alabama and other Confederate privateers from escaping 
to sea (§ 672). Hence our government maintained that 
Great Britain ought now to pay for at least part of the 
damage done by tliem. The answer of Great Britain was 
that there had been no haws, at that time, under which 
the government could seize the privateers ; but that 
matters would be better arranged in future. To this the 
United States answ^ered that Great Britain was still bound 
to pay damages for her neglect to pass the needful laws 
in due season. 

777. The Treaty of Washington, in 187 i, ended the long 
dispute between the two countries. It referred all matters 
in dispute between Great Britain and the United States 
to arbitrators, or umpires. The Alabama claims were to 
be decided by five arbitrators, to be appointed by Great 
Britain, the United States, Italy, Switzerland, and Brazil. 
The arbitrators met at Geneva, in Switzerland, in 1872, 
heard the evidence and arguments on both sides, and 
decided that Great Britain should pay $15,500,000 to the 
United States for the damage done. The Northwestern 
boundary, between Vancouver's Island and the United 
States, was still doubtful and disputed (§ 523); and the 
treaty of Washington left the decision to the Emperor of 
Germany. He decided in favor of the boundary as the 
United States had claimed it. The Canadian fisheries 
had also caused disputes. Great Britain claimed that 
American fishermen made use of the shores near the 
fisheries, and that the United States ought to pay for this 
privilege. The treaty of Washington referred this ques- 
tion to another board of arbitrators, whose decision was 
that the United States should pay $5. 500,000 to Great 
Britain. 

778. San Domingo, the eastern half of the island of 
Hayti, is a republic, inhabited chiefly by negroes. Its 



452 RECONSTRUCTION [1869 

rulers were anxious, and its people were willing, to be 
annexed to the United States. A treaty of annexation 
was agreed upon in 1869, but it provoked great opposi- 
tion in the United States, for it would have brought in a 
great number of ignorant voters, of whom the country 
had already enough to take care of. The United States 
Senate refused to confirm the treaty, and it fell through. 

779. The Virginius was an American vessel which, in 
1873, was carrying supplies to Cuba, to help insurgents 
against Spain. The business was unlawful, and the vessel 
was captured on the ocean by a Spanish war-vessel and 
taken to Cuba. The Spanish authorities at once put the 
crew and passengers on trial, and shot a number of them 
who were adjudged guilty. This harsh punishment ex- 
cited great indignation in the United States, and there 
was some danger of war ; but the government of Spain 
succeeded in stopping the bloody work of its agents in 
Cuba. Those of the prisoners who were still alive were 
sent to Spain, and were released after an imprisonment. 

(2) Internal Affairs. 

780. Grant's First Administration (1869-73) was marked 
by general prosperit}'. The production of gold and silver 
in the Pacific States and Territories increased rapidly. 
Agriculture was flourishing, for wars and bad harvests in 
Europe made temporarily a great market for American 
grain and cattle. New agricultural regions in the far 
West began to be settled. Railroads were being built in 
every direction. More miles of railroad were built in the 
United States during these four years than had been built 
in any other country of the world during all the years 
past. Indeed, more were built than were yet necessary, 
for every man who had money to use was eager to share 
in the profits of railroad-building. 



iSyo] THE PAClhlC RAILROADS 453 

781. Grant's Second Administration (1873-77) ^^'^^'^ the 
opposite of the first. ICxtriuai^ant railroad-building 
brought on a financial panic, which began in 1873 and 
did not come to an end until about 1879. Many railroads 
had been built in parts of the country where they did not 
pay interest on the expense of building them. As soon 
as those who had built them began to wish to sell, nobody 
wished to buy. Money became scarce ; many great tor- 
tunes were lost; and there was general distress. In 
addition to financial troubles, there were many political 
scandals (§ 794), ending in a dangerous disputed election 
(§ 798)' so that there have been few periods in our history 
when the general feeling about the future has been more 
gloom}' than during this administration. 

782. The Census of 1870 showed a population of 38,- 
558,371, an increase of 7,000,000 since i860 (§ 588). 
At previous rates, in time of peace, the increase should 
have been about 10,000,000; but the war, with its loss 
of life, decrease of immigration, and general confusion, 
had made the difference. Most of the Southern States 
had hardly any increase. 

783. The Pacific Railroads. — The Central Pacific rail- 
road, from Omaha to San Francisco, was completed in 
1869. It had been begun in 1862, during the heat of the 
war, and Congress had assisted it by giving the company 
public lands, and by promising to pay the interest on its 
bonds if it should be unable to do so. The completion 
of this railroad made it possible for the traveller to cross 
the continent in a week ; and an easy passage was pro- 
vided for mails and merchandise between Europe and 
Asia. Americans had made a substitute for the ' ' north- 
west passage," sought for by early discoverers (§21). 
The Northern Pacific railroad was completed in 1883. 
It runs from Duluth and St. Paul throucfh North Dakota 



454 RECONSTRUCTION [187 1 

to Puget Sound, where it meets the lines running down 
the coast. A number of other Hues running to the Pacific 
have since then been constructed, so that the railway in- 
tercommunication between east and west has been greatly 
facilitated. 

784. Great Fires were numerous during the years 187 1 
and 1872. Chicago was burned in October, 187 i. This 
was the greatest fire in modern times. It began in the 
poorer part of the city, and was hurried by a high wind 
into the richest portion, among banks, business houses, 
and the handsomest of the private residences. When it 
ceased burning, on the third day, 100,000 people were 
homeless, $200,000,000 in property had been destroyed, 
and for miles along the lake front there were only ruins. 
In the same month great forest-fires swept over Wiscon- 
sin, and more than 1,500 persons were burned to death. 
In November, 1872, a large part of Boston was burned, 
with a loss of $70,000,000. The news of each of these 
disasters had hardly been telegraphed when train-loads of 
provisions and supplies were started from all parts of the 
country to the place where they were needed. Rebuild- 
ing began at once; and Chicago and Boston soon rose 
from their ruins, finer cities than before their misfortune. 

785. Indian Troubles were quite numerous during Grant's 
second administration. The Modoc Indians, living near 
Klamath Lake, in southern Oregon, were ordered by the 
government to go to another reservation ; but they refused 
to go, and killed the peace commissioners sent to them. 
Their country, the "lava-beds," was a region of old 
volcanoes, with underground passages miles in length ; 
and it was not until 1873, after nearly a year's fighting, 
that the troops could drive them out of their hiding-places. 
The Sioux Indians, under Sitting Bull, were also trouble- 
some. In 1876, they were gradually driven toward the 



iSyi] THE END OE RECONSTRUCTION 455 

Bii^ Horn River, in southern Montana. Here General 
Custer, with a sini^le cavahy regiment, rashly charged 
the whole tribe, and he and all his men were killed. 
Fresh troops afterward arrived, and drove the Indians into 
British America. 

786. Colorado The thirty-eighth State admitted to the 

Union was Colorado (1876). It was formed partly from 
the Louisiana purchase and partly from the Mexican 
cession (§ 543). 

787. The Centennial, or hundredth, anniversary of the 
Declaration of Independence was celebrated in 1876. 
As a part of the celebration, an International Exposition 
was held at Philadelphia from May until November. In 
its great buildings were collected specimens of the pro- 
ductions, manufactures, and arts of every country. It 
was visited by nearly ten million people, and served ex- 
cellently as a general educator. 

(3) T/ic End of Reconstruction. 

788. Reconstruction was completed in 1870, by the 
readmission of Georgia, Mississippi, Texas, and Virginia 
(§ 762), which hitherto had not been willing to change 
their forms of government so as to meet the wishes of 
Congress. Early in 1871 all the States were represented 
in Congress, for the first time since 1861. 

789. The Fifteenth Amendment was ratified by three- 
fourths of the States, and became a part of the Constitu- 
tion in 1870. It had been proposed by Congress the year 
before. It forbade the United States, or any State, to 
prevent any person from voting because of his "race, 
color, or previous condition of servitude." Negro suf- 
frage was thus, apparently, ensured. It was hoped that 
the Southern negroes would now be able to take care 
of themselves by electing representatives in their State 



456 RECONSTRUCTION [1871 

governments. Unfortunately, the freedmen were the 
most ignorant part of the population. It had been part 
of the law of slavery to keep them ignorant and to make 
them afraid of their masters. They were still so ignorant 
and timid that they knew but one way of voting, and that 
was to vote together and against the whites. State legis- 
latures have the power to lay taxes, and all the Southern 
property on which taxes were laid belonged to the whites. 
The whites therefore used every means to keep the 
negroes from voting, for fear negro legislatures would 
make the taxes unbearably heavy. Sometimes they paid 
their negro workmen to stay at home on election-day; 
sometimes they threatened to discharge them if they 
voted ; and thus, in several of the States, the whites soon 
got control of the State governments again. ^ 

790. Disorder in the South soon became very common 
in those States in which the bribes or threats above-men- 
tioned were not enough to keep the legislatures out of the 
control of the freedmen. The whites asserted that the 
reconstructed governments made bad laws and stole the 
public moneys. The reconstructed governments asserted 
that the whites resisted the laws by violence, and whipped 
or killed negroes in order to prevent them from voting. 
Both assertions seem to have been correct. The disorders 
were worst in South Carolina, Mississippi, Arkansas, and 
Louisiana, but they extended more or less to all the 
seceding States. 

791. The Reconstructed Governments appealed to the 
President for help. The Constitution and laws provide 

' "Carpet-bagger" was a name given by Southern whites to Northern men 
who settled in tlie South and voted with the negroes. The name was given 
to them because they were said to have brought nothing but their carpet- 
bags with them from the North. Many of them were former Union soldiers. 
A " scalawag " was a native Southern white who voted with the negroes, 
and was considered a traitor bv the whites. 



'1S76] FAILURE OF RECONSTRUCTION 457 

that a State government which cannot put clown disorder 
within its Hmits ma}' obtain support from the President. 
PresideiU Grant sent troops to the assistance of the States 
which asked for it, and thus kept their governments in 
existence. Nevertheless, in one State after another, the 
whites succeeded in carrying the elections and getting 
quiet control of the State government ; and the Federal 
troops were then no longer asked for. In this manner, 
before the end of Grant's second term, the Avhites had 
obtained control of all the Southern State governments 
excepting those of South Carolina, Florida, and Louisiana. 
Even in these three States, they claimed to have carried 
the elections, but the Federal troops still prevented them 
from turning out the reconstructed governments. 

792. The Ku-Klux-Klan was a secret society of whites, 
extending all through the Southern States. It operated 
originally as a sort of police to keep the freedmen in sub- 
jection. It then attacked the white Republicans, the 
"carpet-baggers" or "scalawags." h^inally, it seems 
to have gone into the work of committing murders and 
outrages for pay or spite, so that the better class of whites 
were compelled to aid in putting it down. Before this 
took place, Congress passed a number of severe laws, in- 
tended to put an end to the society and its practices of 
riding by night in masks and disguises to terrify, whip, 
or murder freedmen and white Republicans. 

793. Reconstruction, so far as it aimed to make freed- 
men voters, was thus a failure in all but three States before 
1876; and even in these three States, South Carolina, 
Florida, and Louisiana, it became a failure in 1877 
(§ 802). Educationally, however, its effect upon the 
negro has been good. As a slave, the negro had been 
only a thing, a piece of property, without any rights. 
Reconstruction has given him every right but that of 



45^ RECONSTRUCTION [1875 

voting; and even this right, though still often denied him, 
is slowly being admitted, as the negro shows himself 
worthy of it. 

(4) Political Affairs. 

794. Political Scandals were unhappily numerous during 
Grant's administrations. A Whiskey Ring was dis- 
covered in the West in 1875, composed of distillers and 
revenue officers, and formed for the purpose of swindling 
the government out of the taxes on the manufacture of 
whiskey. Many of the Indian troubles came from the 
frauds of government agents who cheated the Indians out 
of their allowances. It was charged that the scheme for 
annexing San Domingo (§ 778) was contrived by govern- 
ment agents who owned land in San Domingo, and wished 
to increase its value by anne.xation. One of the Presi- 
dent's Cabinet was impeached for taking bribes, but 
escaped by resigning ; and several members of Congress 
were charged with accepting shares of Credit Mobilier 
ctock,^ given them as inducements to buy their votes. 
Very many of these scandals were the result of the system 
of appointing men to office for political services, which 
had been begun under Jackson (§ 467). 

795. Liberal Republicans. — A few of these political 
scandals had come to public view during Grant's first 
administration. As those who were engaged in them 
were mainly Republicans, the Democrats used them as 
arguments that the whole Republican party was equally 
bad, and some of the Republicans began to feel very 
much inclined to leave their party. Moreover, many of 

^ The Credit Mobilier was organized to take contracts for work on the 
Pacific Railroad. It wished to have certain bills passed by Congress; and 
it secured votes in Congress by giving stock to members. 



1876] {election of 1S76 459 

the Republicans were not satisfied that Federal troops 
should be used so constantly to support the reconstructed 
governments: they thought that if these governments 
were not able to sustain themselves," they were not fit to 
exist. These two reasons caused the formation of the 
"Liberal Republican " party in 1871— 2. 

796. The Presidential Election of 1872 was influenced 
largely by the state cf affairs in the South. The Liberal 
Republicans nominated Horace Greeley, of New York, 
and B. Gratz Brown, of Missouri, and the Democrats 
accepted these nominations as their own. The Repub- 
licans nominated President Grant and Henry Wilson, of 
Massachusetts, and approved the President's use of 
Federal troops at the South. The Republicans were 
successful, and Grant and Wilson were elected President 
and Vice-President.^ 

797. Grant's Second Term was marked by a great in- 
crease in the scandals which became public. Few per- 
sons believed that the President was implicated in them, 
but they were used as political arguments against the party 
which had elected him. \\\ 1876, the Democrats nomi- 
nated Samuel J. Tilden, of New York, and Thomas A. 
Hendricks, of Indiana, declaring their purpose to " reform 
the government." The Republicans nominated Ruther- 
ford B. Hayes, of Ohio, and William A. Wheeler, of 
New York, declaring that the government would be safe 
if left under their control. The Independent, Greenback, 
or National party also nominated candidates, but they 
obtained no electoral votes. The main object of the party 
was to have all paper money issued by the government, 
and none by banks. At this election there seemed to be 

^ Grant and Wilson received 286 of the 366 elect')ral votes. Greeley died 
soon after the election. His mind had been overthrown by the excitement 
of the struggle. 



460 RECONSTRUCTION [1876 

no great disputed principles between the two parties : one 
party wished to c^ct in, and the other to stay in. 

798. The Presidential Election of 1876 was thrown into 
complete confusion b\' the state of affairs at the South. 
It must be remembered that when the people at large 
vote, they do not vote directly for President and Vice- 
President: they vote for electors, and these electors after- 
ward vote for the President and Vice-President (§ 295). 
When the election by the people was over, it was found 
that, outside of Florida and Louisiana, each party had 
obtained nearly the same number of electors, and that 
both parties claimed to have carried the two deciding 
States, Florida and Louisiana.^ The reconstructed gov- 
ernments, on account of violence in their States, had 
usually appointed "returning boards," commonly of five 
men, whose duty was to examine the vote of the State, and 
throw out the votes of any counties or parts of counties 
in which voters had been kept away from the polls by 
intimidation or violence. In Plorida and Louisiana, the 
Democrats had a majority of the votes cast ; but the 
Republicans had a majority after the returning boards had 
thrown out the votes of those counties which they decided 
against. The Democrats protested that this was illegal, 
as it made the returning boards masters of the election ; 
the Republicans defended it, on the ground that any other 
arrangement would make force and fraud masters of the 
election. 

799. Congress had for about fifty years claimed and 
exercised the power to decide disputes about electoral 
votes (vj 831). But now the Democrats had a majority 
in the House of Representatives ; the Republicans had a 
majority in the Senate; and it was certain that the two 

' There wen.- other points in (lis]")ute, but these two States formed the most 
important element in the controversy. 



i<S77j THE ELECTORAL COMMISSION 46/ 

bodies would not agree in any decision about Florida and 
Louisiana. When Congress met in December, 1876, it 
was plain to all men that Congress might argue the 
matter without any result until March, that then two 
Presidents would claim the office, and that civil war 
between their supporters might follow. 

800. The Electoral Commission — Congress discussed the 
situation until it was found that no agreement could be 
reached by the two Houses, and then the moderate men 
of both parties united in j^assing a special law to create an 
Electoral Commission. This commission was to be com- 
posed of fifteen members, five of them judges of the 
Supreme Court, five Senators, and five Representatives. 
The Commissioners were to consider the disputed points, 
and to decide what seemed to them the true votes. Their 
decision was to hold good, unless the two Houses should 
agree to overrule it, and every one knew that the two 
Houses could not agree in anything. The decision was 
therefore really with the commission. 

801. The Decision. — It had been intended that seven of 
the commissioners should be Republicans, seven Demo- 
crats, and the fifteenth a person who was not an adherent 
of either party. This fifteenth member was unable to 
serve, and a Republican took his place. It was then 
found that on disputed questions the seven Democrats 
and the eight Republicans voted unitedly, so that all the 
important points were decided in favor of the Republicans 
by votes of eight to seven. The Houses did not agree 
in changing any of the commission's decisions; and 
R. B. Hayes became President, and W. A. Wheeler 
Vice-President.' 

802. The Result was not pleasant to many of the Demo- 

1 Tliert- were 185 electoral vott-s lluis declared for Hayes and Wkfreler, 
and 184 for Tilden and Hendricks. 



462 RECONSTRUCTION [1865-69 

crats, but the country was glad to find any means of 
escape from a pressing danger. One result was that the 
remaining reconstructed governments in the South were 
left to their fate. Unable to stand alone, and supported 
only by Federal troops, it was seen that their control of 
important electoral votes had thrown the whole country 
into a position of extreme peril. Even before the new 
administration came into office. President Grant had 
withdrawn the Federal troops from the support of the 
reconstructed governments, and his action met general 
approval. Within two months, the last of the recon- 
structed governments disappeared, and a "solid South" 
took their place (§ 753). All the Southern States were 
controlled b}' the white voters, and all were Democratic. 
803. The Leading Events of the administrations of John- 
son and Grant were as follows : 

1865-69: Johnson's Term of Office. 

1865: Disbanding of the armies § 752 

Southern State governments reorgan- 
ized 756 

Thirteenth Amendment ratified 757 

1866: Tennessee readmitted 760 

Atlantic telegraph laid 772 

Fenian invasion of Canada 771 

1867: Reconstruction Acts passed by Con- 
gress 761 

Tenure of Office Act passed by Con- 
gress 766 

Nebraska admitted 774 

Maxnnilian shot 770 

Alaska purchased 773 

1868 : Removal of Stanton 766 

Impeachment of the President 767 

Six States readmitted 762 

Fourteenth Amendment ratified 763 

1869-73: Grant's First Term 780 

1869: Pacific Railroad completed 783 

San Domingo treaty 778 



1S70-77] LEADING EVENTS 463 

1870: Reconstruction completed § 788 

Fifteenth Amendment ratiliL'd 789 

1871 : Ku-Klux disorders 792 

Burning of Chicago 784 

Treaty of Washington 777 

1872: Burning of Boston 784 

Modoc war 785 

1873-77: Grant's Second Term 781 

1873: Beginning of the panic 781 

The Jlrgmius case 779 

1876: Centennial celebration 787 

Admission of Colorado 786 

Sioux war 785 

1877: Electoral Commission 800 

Topics for FuRTHf:R Study. 

1. Maximilian in Mexico. 

2. The impeachment of President Johnson. 

3. The Ku-Klux-Klan. 

4. "Carpet-bag" government in a Southern State {e.g., 
Mississippi). 

Supplementary Reading. 

Sources, — Besides the Congressional documents, many im- 
portant papers will be found in Cooper's Americafi Politics, 
McPherson's History of Reconstruction, and the American Annual 
Cvclopcedia. The Congressional Globe was succeeded in 1873 t>y 
the Congressiotial Record. Magazines and newspapers, though 
difficult to use, are of indispensable importance for the years 
subsecjuent to the Civil War, The newspaper almanacs, es- 
pecially those of the New York Tribune and New York World, 
are very useful for reference, particularly on statistical matters. 

Narrative Accounts. — Von Hoist, Schouler, and Bryant 
and Gay are the only historians who deal at any length with the 
period since 1865. Andrews's History of the Last Quarter 
Century is a useful medley of information, with interesting pic- 
tures. The constitutional aspects of reconstruction are ably 
treated in Dunning' s Essays on the Civil War and Reconstruc- 
tion. 



CHAPTER XXI 

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT 

(I) Hayes's Administration: 1877-81 

R. B. Hayes, Oliio, President. Wm. A. Wheeler, N. Y., Vice-President. 

(i) Internal Affairs. ' 

804. Hayes's Administration proved to be a period of 
calm and contentment, such as the country had not known 

for many years. The war 
was over, and its passions 
were ch'ing" away. Recon- 
struction had done all that 
it could do, and had shown 
what it could not do. The 
panic of 1873 was passing 
off gradually, as the growth 
of the country brought into 
use and profit the railroads 
which had been useless and 
unprofitable. The coun- 
try's history during these 
four }'ears is mainly the 
story of the daily labor of 
fifty millions of people who 
were working busily, filling 
new regions like Dakota, 
and selling the produce of 
their labor in enormous quantities to other nations.^ 

' Tlic census of 1880 showed a population of 50,155,783, an increase of 

464 




R. B. Hayes. 



1877] INTllRNyU. AFl\-1lRS 4^5 

805. Electricity was broui^ht into use, durini;' tliis 
period, in many new and wonderful ways. It had already 
been put to use in the tele<^raph (§ 510). Now the tele- 
phone was perfected, and the electric light was brought 
into use for lighting houses and streets. The first promis- 
ing attempts were made to use electricity as a means of 
transmitting power, in driving ordinary machinery and 
locomotive engines. 

806. Railroad Strikes were numerous during the summer 
of 1877. The railroads attempted to lower the wages of 
the men ; most of the men refused to work for the new 
wages, and som.e of them refused to allow the trains to 
run. In some cases they even resisted the troops which 
were protecting the railroads; and there were riots at 
Pittsburgh, Chicago, St. Louis, and other places. The 
worst riot took place at Pittsburgh, where the rioters held 
control of the city for several days. Nearly 100 lives 
were lost, and $3,000,000 worth of property w^as 
destroyed, before order was restored. After nearly two 
weeks of general confusion, the disorders were suppressed, 
and the trains began running regularly again. 

807. The Nez Perce' Indians were ordered to remove, in 

1877, from one reservation to another. They refused, 
and began war. They were pursued for 1,500 miles, 
from Idaho through Montana, and were finally compelled 
to surrender. But their skilful retreat was much admired 
by the officers opposed to them : they marched and fought 
like white troops, did no scalping, and killed no women 
or children. 

808. Yellow Fever attacked the Southern States in 

1878, and nearly 15,000 persons died of it. The attack 
was worst at Memphis and New Orleans, and those cities 

11,000.000 since 1870. The hii^lust nites of increase were in the Southern 
States. 



466 ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT [1878 

were at one time abandoned by every one who could leave 
them. Assistance of every kind, medicines, money, and 
nurses, was sent to the afflicted region from all parts of 
the country. 

809. The Mississippi River had for a long- time been 
hard to control. It brings with it vast quantities of mud, 
which gradually drops to the bottom of the river. Great 
shallows are thus formed at the mouth of the river, so as 
to hinder navigation; and the level of the river is raised, 
so that any freshet pours over the banks, and floods the 
neighboring country. The first difficulty was removed, 
during this period, by narrowing the mouth of the river. 
The current was thus made swift enough to scour out the 
mud and carry it into the Gulf of Mexico ; and ocean 
steamers can now pass up the Mississippi to New Orleans. 
The second difficulty has not }^ct been entirely overcome 
(§821). 

(2) Finauccs. 

810. Silver had for some years been decreasing in value 
all over the world, partly because of the enormous pro- 
duction of the silver-mines of Nevada and other Pacific 
States and Territories. The value of gold or silver, like 
that of anything else, depends not only on the use that 
people have for it, but also on the cost of getting it. 
About this time silver began to be used less as a money 
metal, Germany in particular largely discarding it. At the 
same time in Nevada the miners had found new and 
cheaper ways of getting the silver out of the ore; and the 
mines there were yearly sending out larger quantities of 
silver. For both reasons its price, as compared with gold, 
was steadily falling. 

811. Demonetization of Silver. — The laws of the United 
States allowed both gold and silver to be coined into 



iSyS] FINANCES A^l 

dollars. As the amount required to make a silver dollar 
was then worth more than the amount required to make 
a gold dollar, few silver dollars were coined, for the 
owner of silver could exchange it for gold, and have the 
gold coined into more dollars than the amount of silver 
would have made when coined. Hence, in 1873, Con- 
gress "demonetized" silver, i.e., no longer allowed 
silver to be coined into dollars. 

812. Remonetization of Silver. — After 1873 the silver 
previousl\- required to make a silver dollar became worth 
less than a gold dollar. Had silver not been " demonet- 
ized," no one would nou^ have had gold coined into 
dollars, for reasons just the opposite of those given above 
(§811). Thus debts contracted in gold dollars could 
have been paid in silver dollars of less value. Owing to 
the demands of the debtor class. Congress in 1878 par- 
tially " remonetized " silver, i.e., spent monthly a certain 
amount for silver, and coined the purchased silver into 
dollars.^ 

813. Resumption. — Ever since 1862 (§670), paper 
money, issued b)' the government or by national banks, 
had been the onl}- mone)' in general use. It had been 
the only money used by the gox'crnment, except that the 
government demanded gold for the duties on imports, and 
paid gold for the interest on the public debt. It had been 
worth less, and sometimes much less, than gold, partly 
because such large amounts of it had been issued, and 
partly because it had sometimes seemed doubtful whether 
the government would be able finally to pay gold for it. 
It had been decided to resume specie payments ; and the 

' Tliis law is culled the liland-Allisou Act. From 1789 until 1873 only 
8,000,000 silver dollars were coined. From 1878 until 1890 about 400, 
000,000 silver dollars were coined. Most of them are still in the Treasury, 
for the people do not find them as convenient as paper currency. 



468 ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT ['S79 

gov'ernment was prepared, January i, 1879, to pay in 
gold or silver any of its notes that were brought to it for 
payment. But the notes were by this time equal in value 
to gold, and more valuable than silver, so that most people 
preferred to keep the paper money, on account of its 
convenience. 

814. Refunding w^as also accomplished during this 
period. For a long time, a high rate of interest had been 
paid on the public debt, so that the United States paid 
between one hundred and one hundred and fifty million 
dollars a year for interest. It was now so certain that 
the debt would be paid, that men who had money to lend 
were willing to lend it to the government at a lower rate 
of interest. As fast as possible, new bonds were sold at 
low interest, and the money was used to pay the old 
bonds. The annual saving in interest w^as about $30,- 
000,000. The total amount of the debt was now about 
$2,000,000,000 (§ 825). 

( 3 ) Foreig>i Affairs . 

815. Chinese Immigrants to the Pacific States had be- 
come ver)^ numerous. They had been accustomed to live 
far more meanly than white laborers had been used to do, 
and could therefore work for less wages. White laborers 
alleged that they had to bid for work at lower wages than 
were needed to support themselves and their families. 
The consequence was that there were riots, attacks on 
the Chinese, and a general hatred of them in California. 
In I 880, a treaty was made v.'ith China which allowed the 
United States to stop Chinese immigration for a time 
(§ 829). 

(4) Political Affairs. 

816. Congress and the President were often in conflict 
during Hayes's administration. The Democrats generally 



iSSi] GARFIF.I.D /tND ARTHUR 4^9 

controlled Congress, and the)' wished to repeal certain 
laws Avhich had been passed by former Republican Con- 
gresses. 'I'he repealing acts were vetoed by the Presi- 
dent, and the majority in Congress was not large enough 
to pass them over the veto (j< 469). The result was that 
there was a great deal of excitement, and very little was 
done. 

817. In the Presidential Election of 1880 the Democrats 
nominated Winfield S. Hancock, of New York, and 
William H. English, of Indiana; and the Republicans 
nominated James A. Garfield, of Ohio, and Chester A. 
Arthur, of New York. The result was the election of the 
Republican candidates: they received 214 electoral votes 
to I 55 for their opponents. The popular vote was nearly 
equally divided. The National, or Greenback, party also 
nominated candidates, but they received no electoral 
votes. 



(II) Garfield's and Arthur's Administrations: 188 i-s 

James A. Gakfield, O., Pres. Chester A. Arthur, N. V., Vice-President and Pres. 

818. Death of Garfield. — Garfield was inaugurated March 
4, 1 881. Four months afterward (July 2), he was shot 
and mortally wounded by a disappointed man whom he 
had refused to appoint to office. After an illness of eighty 
da)s, the President died (Sept. 19) at Elberon (near 
Long Branch), New Jersey, to which place he had been 
removed from Washington. Vice-President Arthur be- 
came President at Garfield's death. Congress has since 
(^ 831) provided that, in case of the death or disability of 
both President and Vice-President, the members of the 
Cabinet (§^ 296, 831) shall succeed to the Presidency, 
in the order of the establishment of their offices. 



47° 



ECONOMIC DE VEL OP MEN T 



[1883 



819. Civil - service Reform. — Since Jackson's time 
(§ 467), every President had been expected to appoint 
men to office because they had worked for his party, 
rather than because they were good pubhc servants. 
Garfield's death, whicli was a tragical result of this system 
of appointment, brought a larger number of people to 
think of the evils involved in it, and to call for a better 




James A. Garfield. 



CuEsiEK A. Arthur. 



system. Congress (1883) accordingly passed the Civil- 
service Act, allowing the President to select examiners, 
and to make appointments on their examination and 
recommendation of candidates. This method of appoint- 
ment has been very successful in other countries ; and in 
ours it has been applied to a steadily larger part of the 
civil service by the Presidents who have succeeded Hayes. 
It has also been adopted by some of our States and cities. 



i88i] GENERAL PROSPERITY 471 

820. The Yorktown Celebration — The hundredth anni- 
versary of Cornwalhs's surrender (J^ 261) was celebrated 
at Yorktown in 1881. In order to show the country's 
friendship for Great Britain, President Arthur ordered that 
the celebration should end with a general salute to the 
British flag-. 

821. Natural Disasters. — Just after the Civil War, the 
government had established a Weather Bureau, to give 
warning by telegraph of the movements of storms. It 
had been of great service ; but it could do nothing to 
guard against such misfortunes as the overflow of the 
Mississippi (§ 809), which drove 100,000 persons from 
their homes in 1882, and the cyclones, or revolving wind- 
storms, which do great damage every year in the South 
and West. 

822. The Mormons. — Congress passed a stringent law 
in 1882, intended to put an end to polygamy among the 
Mormons in Utah (§ 586). The practice of polygamy 
thereafter decreased (^ 862). 

823. The Cincinnati Riots. — The country was startled 
in 1884 by a mob-outbreak in Cincinnati, which burned 
the court-house and other public buildings, and kept con- 
trol of the city for several days until dispersed by the 
militia. It was then found that the reason for the mob's 
existence was that justice had been badly executed and 
criminals had escaped punishment. 

824. General Prosperity. — The country had now fully 
recovered from the panic of 1873 (§ 781). Work was 
plenty for everybody, and agriculture, trade, and manu- 
factures were flourishing. This was especially noticeable, 
and for the first time, at the South. That section had 
found free labor far more profitable than slave labor 
(§ 597)- It'^ crops were very large; railroads were being 
built in every direction; rich iron-mines were opened; 



472 ECONOMIC DEyELOPMENT ['^^^Z 

and manufactures were appearing as they had never done 
while the workmen were slaves. Successful expositions 
at Atlanta (1881) and New Orleans (1884-5) showed the 
great resources of the "New South," and its wonderful 
advance since 1865. 

825. The Tariff of 1883.— The payment of the debt had 
gone on so rapidly that the debt was now only about half 
as large as at the end of the Civil War. It was no longer 
possible to use so much of the government revenues in 
paying the debt, for bondholders who had consented to 
take lower rates of interest (§ 814) had done so on the 
government's promise not to pay off their bonds for a 
number of years to come. It was then proposed to 
decrease the duties on imports, in order to make the 
government revenues smaller. For that purpose, a new 
tariff was adopted by Congress, in 1883, on the report of 
a Tariff Commission, composed of men familiar with the 
subject. As it turned out, this new tariff made very little 
reduction in the duties; and the Democrats in Congress 
made another attempt to reduce them the next year. 
This brought up the old question of Free Trade or Protec- 
tion. Duties had been made high in 1861, partly to 
obtain needed revenue, partly to encourage American 
manufactures, which would pay new taxes ; and they had 
not been decreased since. To decrease them now would 
be to have less protection, and the Republicans and pro- 
tectionist Democrats defeated the proposal to lower the 
duties. The question of reducing the ' ' surplus revenue 
then passed into the Presidential election. 

826. Presidential Election of 1884. — The Republicans, 
declaring in favor of protection, nominated for President 
James G. Blaine, of Maine, and for Vice-President John 
A. Logan, of Illinois. The Democrats, declaring in 
favor of a reduction of the government's surplus revenue, 



i8$4] LEADING El/ENTS 473 

but saying as little as possible about the general question 
of free trade or protection, nominated Grover Cleveland, 
of New York, and Thomas A. Hendricks, of Indiana. 
The election was decided by the 36 electoral votes (§ 295) 
of New York, which were cast for Cleveland and Hen- 
dricks, and they were elected.^ 

827. The Leading Events of the administrations of 
Hayes, Garfield, and Arthur were as follows: 

1S77-81 : Hayes's Term of Office. 

1877 : Nez Perce war § 807 

Raih-oad strikes 806 

1878: Yellow-fever epidemic 808 

Remonetization of silver 812 

1879: Resumption of specie payments. ... 813 

1880: Treaty with China 815 

1881-5: Garfield's and Arthur's Terms of Office. 

1881 : Death of President Garfield 818 

Yice-President Arthur succeeds him. 818 

Atlanta Exposition 824 

Yorktown celebration 820 

r882 : INIississippi floods 821 

Anti-polygamy Act 822 

Tariff Commission 825 

1883 : New Tariff Act pas.sed 825 

Civil-service Act passed 819 

1884: Cincinnati riot 823 

New Orleans Exposition 824 

Topics for Further Study. 

1. Restriction of Chinese immigration. 

2. Practical benefits of civil-service reform. 

3. River and harbor improvement by the national govern - 
ment. 

^ The electoral votes were 219 for Cleveland and Hendricks and 182 for 
Blaine and Logan. The Prohibition Party, aiming to prohibit the sale of 
intoxicating liquors, nominated John P. St. John, of Kansas, and William 
Daniel, of Maryland, and the former Greenback party (§ 797) nominated 
Benj. F. Butler, of Massachusetts, and A. M. West, of Mississippi; but none 
of these received any electoral votes. 



474 ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT [1884 

4. The pension system. 

5. The education of the negro. 

Supplementary Reading. 

The authorities remain as in Chapter XX. The works of 
Garfield have been edited by Hinsdale; there is a biography by 
W. O. Stoddard. 



CHAPTER XXII 



CLEVELAND AND HARRISON 

(I) Cleveland's First Administration: 1885-9 

Gkover Cleveland, N. Y., President T. A. HENDificKs, Ind., Vice-President. 

828. The New President. — The country had not hitherto 
seen so sudden a rise to prominence as the election of 
Grover Cleveland as mayor 

of Buffalo (188 I ), governor 
of New York (1882), and 
President of the United 
States (1884). Muchofthis 
rapid elevation had been 
due to his fearlessness and 
admitted integrity ; and the 
circumstances of his admin- 
istration were such as to 
test both these qualities. 

829. Labor Troubles. — 
The wealth of the country 
was increasing enormously, 
and the number of rich men 
was increasing with it. If 
all their wealth should be 
divided among their fellow 
citizens, it would gi\'c ver\' 

little tf) each; but tiie sight of their apparently easy and 
pleasant lives was enough to persuade many workingmen 

475 




Ci.i-\i:i. \NJ '. 



476 CLEl^F.LAND AND HARRISON [1885 

that they themselves • were working harder than was 
necessary. Great numbers of them formed associations 
which refused to work except for higher wages and shorter 
hours, as they had a perfect right to do. But some of 
them tried to keep other men from taking their places, 
threatening, injuring, and in some cases killing them ; and 
there was bad feeling when police protection was given to 
the injured parties. Some employers made " blacklists " 
of men whom they did not like ; and these men could 
find employment nowhere. The early years of President 
Cleveland's term were full of these " labor troubles," and 
of efforts to make laws to settle them. Some rich em- 
ployers brought large numbers of workmen from Europe 
at very low wages ; and Congress passed a Contract 
Labor Act, hoping to stop this practice, and a still 
stronger act against Chinese immigration (§ 815). Some 
violent men, called Anarchists, mostly from Europe, who 
wished to destroy all government, made loud threats of 
disorder, and rose in riot in Chicago. When they had 
been put down, there were many proposals to check 
immigration in some way, but they came to nothing. 

830. The President's Policy. — President Cleveland had 
a decided belief that there was a disposition to pass too 
many acts of Congress, and to pass them too hastily; 
and he had no fear of putting his belief in practice. He 
vetoed a number of bills, particularly for special grants 
of pensions, and thus made the opposition to him more 
intense. He enforced the Civil-service Act (^^ 819), but 
the old system of appointment continued as to many of 
the offices to which that act did not apply; and for this 
he was warmh' attacked. 

831. The Presidential Succession. — Several important 
changes, however, were made in regard to the office of 
President. The Presidential Succession Act provided for 



1889] FOREIGN .-IND NAl^AL /Ih'h'AlRS 477 

successors in case of the death of both President and 
Vice-President (§ 818). The Presidential Election Act 
provided for the settlement by the States of disputes as to 
choice of electors, such as occurred in 1S76 (§ 799). 
The Tenure of Office Act (§ 766) was repealed. 

832. Interstate Commerce Act. — One of the most im- 
portant laws passed was the Interstate Commerce Act 
(1887), intended to prevent railroads which operated in 
more than one State from charging unfair rates for their 
services. Such practices were forbidden, and a commis- 
sion of five persons was appointed to hear and try com- 
plaints against any railroad disobeying the law. Each 
State, however, continued to control the railroads operated 
only within its own territory. 

833. Ballot Reform. — During 1887 and 1888 promising 
efforts began to be made in the different States to change 
the method of voting to that which had been remarkably 
successful in Australia, Great Britain, and other countries 
in stopping bribery and interference with voters, and 
securing an absolutely secret ballot. 

834. Foreign and Naval Affairs. — A French company 
had been digging a canal across the Isthmus of Panama, 
while an American company proposed to dig another 
across Nicaragua. It was felt by many Americans that 
the United States ought to have control of the successful 
canal, as an important route for commerce between cur 
Atlantic and Pacific coasts ; and yet other nations would 
not take this kindly. The French company, however, 
proved a failure, and it broke down in the midst of its 
work (1889). There were also disputes with Great Britain 
about the right of American fishermen to buy ice and bait in 
Canadian ports, and with Germany about a group of islands 
in the Pacific called Samoa (§ 894). All these misunder- 
standings were settled peacefully, but they led to the 



478 CLEl/ELAND ^ND HARRISON [1887 

appropriation of large sums for the construction of im- 
proved and more powerful and swift ironclads for the navy. 

835.* New States. —Four new States were admitted to 
the Union in 1889: North Dakota, South Dakota, Mon- 
tana, and Washington. The addition of Wyoming and 
Idaho in 1890 made the number of States forty-four. 
None of these States had considerable populations, and 
political and party influences had much to do with deter- 
mining their admission. 

836. The Tariff and the Surplus.— By this time the in- 
ternal-revenue taxes (§ 691 ) had been gradually abolished, 
with the exception of the taxes on tobacco and intoxicat- 
ing liquors. The "surplus" was growing larger, for 
the national revenue was increasing, while the need for 
money was decreasing. The tariff of 1883 had made 
but a slight reduction in the duties, and the growing 
" surplus " brought the question up again. It may seem 
a good thing for a government to have so large an amount 
of money to its credit as was then lying unused in the 
Treasury,^ but it was really a bad thing, for many reasons. 
This surplus, though a very small part of the country's 
wealth, was a very large part of its money; and the 
country needs all its money to carry on its business. To 
lock up part of the country's money in idleness is to 
hinder just so much of the country's business, and give 
every one just so much less work and wealth. And, 
further, so much idle money in the Treasury is a constant 
temptation to Congress to spend it wastefully and extrava- 
gantly, and keep up the taxation. The two parties were 
therefore compelled to consider ways of reducing taxation. 
The Democrats wished to reduce the tariff duties : the 
protected manufacturers declared that this would ruin 

• In December, 1887, the Secretary of the Treasury estimated the surplus 
for the year at $113,000,000. 



1 888] THE MILLS BILL 479 

thcni, and the Republicans upheld the view of the manu- 
facturers. 

837. Cleveland's Message. — When Congress met in 
December, 1887, the Secretary of the Treasury reported 
to the President that, if the withdrawal of money from 
business into the Treasury should continue, the result 
would be a panic (^ 485)- The President therefore con- 
fined his annual message to an appeal to Congress to 
reduce the duties on imported goods, as the only advisable 
method of decreasing the revenue and the surplus. This 
brought up again the old issue of free trade (or a revenue 
tariff) against protection (§ 425). 

838. The Trusts. —The interest in the matter was in- 
creased by a new feature in business management about 
this time. Corporations are bodies of men united under 
control of law so that they can sue and be sued in the 
courts. Some of these corporations began to unite into 
"trusts," for which there was no law. It was asserted 
that they kept prices high, and were aided in so doing by 
the tariff, which kept out foreign goods. 

839. The Mills Bill. — The Democrats, who had a small 
majority in the House of Representatives, brought in a 
bill to reduce the duties on imports: it was called the 
Mills bill, from the name of its author. A few of the 
Democratic Congressmen were protectionists, and it was 
only after nearly six months of argument that they con- 
sented to support the Mills bill, which was then passed 
by the House, but was lost in the Senate, where the 
Republicans had a majority. 

840. The Presidential Election (1888). — In the midst of 
the discussion, nominations for the Presidential election 
of 1888 were made by both parties. President Cleveland 
was renominated by the Democrats, with Allan G. Thur- 
man, of Ohio, for Vice-President. The Republicans, 



48o 



CLBl/ELAND AND HARRISON 



[1SS9 



supporting protection more warmly than ever, nominated 
Benjamin Harrison, of Indiana, and Levi P. Morton, of 
New York. The 36 electoral votes of New York again 
decided the election (§ 826), and elected Harrison and 
Morton. This completed the first century of the republic 
under the Constitution (§ 294).^ 



(II) Harrisons Administration: 1889-93 

Benjamin Haruison, Ind., President. Levi F. Mokton, N. Y., Vice-President. 

841. The Struggle over the Rules. — When Congress met 
in December, 1889, it was proposed in the House of 

Representatives, where 
the Republican majority 
w^as small, to change the 
rules governing the 
House, so as to prevent 
dilatory motions and ex- 
pedite business. Pre- 
viously it had been possi- 
ble for members to defer 
action on a measure by a 
policy of dela}^ known as 
fililnistcri)ig, which con- 
sisted essentially either in 
making irrelevant motions 
which took precedence of 
the pending business, or 
in simply refraining from 
answering to their names 
when the roll was called, 
of the members answered to their 




Benjamin Harrison. 



Unless a majority 

1 The electoral votes were 233 for Harrison ami Morton to 168 for Cleve- 
land and Thurinan. The Pr<;hibition candidates, Clinton B. Fisk, of New 
Jersey, and John A. Brooks, of Missouri, received no electoral votes, 



1890] THE McKINLRY TARIFF 481 

names, the progress of business was temporarily suspended 
until a majority of the whole House answered to the roll- 
call. Both parties in the past had resorted to this plan 
of delaying action, and had claimed that such delay was 
a right to which the minority was entitled in order to 
prevent hast}' and ill-considered legislation on the part of 
the majority. The proposed change in the rules allowed 
the Speaker to count as helping to make a quorum mem- 
bers who were present but who did not answer to the roll, 
and also authorized him to disregard dilatory motions. 
After an angry debate, the new rules were adopted. 

842. The McKinley Tariff Act.— The Presidential elec- 
tion had turned upon the principle of protection. The 
Republicans had been completely victorious, and had 
elected the President and a majority in both branches of 
Congress. In his first message to Congress, President 
Harrison recommended the maintenance of the protective 
policy. Accordingly, in April, 1890, Mr. McKinley of 
Ohio introduced in the House a tariff bill which sought 
at the same time to maintain the protective system and to 
reduce the revenues of the Federal Government, which 
were then in excess of its expenditures. The bill laid 
high duties on foreign goods which came into competition 
with home products, and put on the free list many goods 
which were produced exclusively abroad. In the Senate 
the bill was so amended as to embrace the principle 
of reciprocity. This form of reciprocity consisted in 
authorizing the President to impose duties on certain 
goods imported free from other countries, in case those 
countries imposed duties "reciprocally unequal and un- 
reasonable " upon certain of our exports to them. In 
this amended form the bill became law. 

843. Silver Legislation. — There were many in Congress 
who were dissatisfied with the law of 1878 (^^ 8ii, 812), 



482 CLEVELAND AND HARRISON [1891 

which authorized a monthly purchase of silver by the 
government. They claimed that any owner of silver 
bullion ought to be allowed to take the metal to the mint 
and have it coined into dollars, each dollar to contain 
37 ^i grains of pure silver and to be a legal tender in 
payment of debts. Such a law, they claimed, would 
make the silver dollar exchange in the bullion market for 
the gold dollar. As the outcome of this feeling the 
Bland- Allison law (§ 812) was repealed; and as a com- 
promise, and in the line of further concession to the 
advocates of the more extended use of silver, a law was 
passed which required the government to buy each month, 
at the market price, 4,500,000 ounces of silver. The law 
further provided that for every gold dollar's worth of silver 
so purchased an equivalent amount in treasury notes of 
the United States should be issued and that these notes 
should be a legal tender in payment of debt. The effect 
of the law was to increase the money in circulation by 
about $50,000,000 annually. It failed, however, to raise 
the price of silver, or even to maintain the price at its 
former level. ^ 

844. Increased Expenditures by Congress. — There was at 
this time a very noticeable increase in the appropriations 
of money made by Congress. Many people were alarmed 
at what seemed to them the sudden and undue extrava- 
gance on the part of their representatives at Washington. 
President Harrison in his first message to Congress had 
advocated a more liberal expenditure upon pensions to 
the former soldiers of the Union. In accordance with 
this suggestion the Dependent Pension Bill was passed 
by Congress. This increased very materially the number 

' This law was popularly called the Sherman law, because Senator 
Sherman, although an opponent of the free coinage of silver, was the chair- 
man of the committee which reported the bill in its final form to the Senate. 



1893] THE COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION 483 

of those entitled to pensions, and made it much easier to 
secure pensions than it had been hitherto. The effect 
of this hiw has been rapidlx' to increase the expenditure 
upon pensions luitil now the annual pension bill is b}- far 
the largest single charge upon the national treasury. 
Besitles this, heavy appropriations were made to increase 
the navy and to refund a tax which had been levied on 
the loyal States during the Civil War. The Fifty-first 
Congress spent more than its predecessor by $170,000,- 
000, and the heavier rate of expenditure has been since 
maintained. 

845. The World's Fair at Chicago. — In the early part of 
1890 Chicago was designated by Congress as the site of 
the Columbian Exposition, which was to be held in cele- 
bration of the four-hundredth anniversary of the discovery 
of America by Columbus (§ 6); moreover, a commission 
was appointed to supervise the enterprise. In December, 
1890, the President issued a proclamation inviting all 
nations to take part in the exposition. The great foir was 
formally opened May i, 1893, and closed October 30, 
1893. 

846." Oklahoma. —In 1890, the same year in which 
Idaho and Wyoming were admitted as States, a part of 
the Indian Territory was organized as the Territory of 
Oklahoma. The country was opened to settlement by 
IM'oclamation of the President, and on Sept. 22, 1891, 
some sixty thousand immigrants swarmed in and took 
possession of the fertile farming land. 

847. The Eleventh Census. — The final count as given by 
the Eleventh Census made the population of the United 
States on June i, 1890 (exclusive of Alaska, the whites 
in the Indian Territory, and Indians on reservations), 
62,622,250. The actual total was not far from 63,000,- 
000. Several facts of importance were made known by 



484 CLEVELAND AND HARRISON [1891 

the census. First, while the population was increasing, 
it was not increasing as rapidly as formerly. Between 
1870 and 1880 the increase was thirty per cent; from 
1880 to 1890 it was less than twenty-five per cent. 
Second, it is a noteworthy fact that the rate of increase 
among the colored population in the South was shown to 
be markedly less than among the white population in the 
same States. While the negroes increased in the last 
decade less than fourteen per cent, the whites in the same 
States increased twenty-five per cent. Third, the 
geographical centre of population was in southern Indiana, 
though it is moving slowly but surely toward the 
Mississippi River. 

848. Foreign Affairs. — The administration of President 
Harrison was marked by a number of complications with 
foreign powers, some of which seemed at times to render 
war not impossible. A long-standing wrong to foreigners 
was redressed when Congress passed the International 
Copyright Act, which secured their property in their 
literary productions, provided certain conditions were first 
complied with. The continued agitation of the question 
of silver led to the calling of an International Monetary 
Conference at Brussels, in December, 1892, to secure 
some international co-operation in regard to the use of 
silver as a money metal ; but the effort proved unavailing. 
With England we had a dispute as to our respective 
rights in the waters of Bering Sea, off the coast of Alaska, 
where our vessels and those of Canada were engaged in 
taking seals. In June, 1891, both nations agreed to 
declare a close season, to have English and American 
ships jointly patrol these waters, and to submit the dis- 
puted points to an international commission for arbitration. 

849. New Orleans Riot. — On March 14, 1891, there was 
a riot in New Orleans in which eleven i^ersons of Italian 



1^9 2] FOREIGN RELATIONS 485 

birth were taken from jail and lianged. It was alleg-cd 
that tlie}' belont^'^ed to a secret, oath-bound association 
which had perpetrated certain crimes, and which had 
attempted to shield certain of their number from the pun- 
ishment which the law denounced against the crimes so 
committed. The Federal Government expressed to Italy- 
its deep regret at the occurrence, but disclaimed all 
responsibility for the affair. It was proved that most of 
the unfortunates were naturalized American citizens. On 
behalf of the others Italy demanded reparation in money, 
and a pledge that those engaged in the mob's undertak- 
ing should be tried for their crime. This promise the 
Federal Government was unable to give, whereupon the 
Italian minister left Washington. The matter was finally 
settled by the payment to Italy of $25,000 as an in- 
demnity to the families of the dead Italian citizens, and 
as a token of our good will to the Italian people. 

850. Chili. — October 16, 1891, a number of American 
sailors from the United States ship Baltimore, while 
wearing the uniform of the American navy, were assaulted 
by a mob in Valparaiso, Chili, and were badly maltreated, 
one being killed outright. The demands of our govern- 
ment for an apology and reparation were practically 
ignored until the President in January, 1892, made a 
peremptory demand upon Chili, to which that country 
promptly acceded, offering a money indemnity, which 
was accepted. 

851. Chinese Exclusion. — The efforts which had been 
made to exclude the Chinese from the United States 
(§§ 815, 829) culminated in a law passed in the spring of 
1892 which prohibited Chinese immigration for a further 
period of ten years, and required Chinese residents already 
in this country to provide themselves, under heavy 
penalties, with certificates of residence. 



4S6 CLEyBMND AND HARRISON [1S93 

852. Hawaii. — The Hawaiian Islands were formerly a 
constitutional monarchy with a queen at their head. The 
queen, Liliuokalani, had threatened to abolish the con- 
stitution and to take more power into her own hands. 
This threat was followed in January, 1893, by a revolu- 
tion which set up a provisional government and declared 
the monarchy at an end. The minister of the United 
States landed a number of marines from an American 
war-ship in the harbor of Honolulu. His avowed object 
was the protection of the property of American residents. 
The queen declared that the forces of the United States 
were employed really to aid the revolutionists. She pro- 
tested against the acts of the provisional government, and 
declared that she yielded only to the superior force of the 
United States. On February i, 1893, Minister Stevens 
raised the flag of the United States over the islands, and 
established a protectorate by which the islands were tem- 
porarily in the status of a colony. A treaty of annexation 
was submitted to the Senate, but was speedily withdrawn 
by President Harrison's successor, and the protectorate 
came to an end in April, 1893. 

853. Labor Difficulties. — The strife between employer 
and employee broke out with violence in the summer of 
1892. The Carnegie Company at Homestead, Pa., in 
order to protect their property against violence on the 
part of striking workmen, employed a number of Pinker- 
ton detectives and moved them up the Monongahela 
River in barges, intending to land them at the works. 
A battle ensued between the detectives on the barges and 
the workmen on the river-banks, in which 7 detectives 
and II of their opponents were killed. The militia were 
ordered to the scene, and for a wliile the district was 
placed under martial law. This conflict, with other riots, 
especially in western New York, drew general attention 



1892] RE-ELHCTION OF CLEVELAND 4^7 

to the g^ravity of the question. While lawlessness and 
disorder must be repressed by armed force if necessary, 
it was becoming increasingly clear that some different 
and more peaceful method of settling these disputes must 
eventually be found. 

854. Presidential Election of 1892. — The election of 
1892 again centred about the question of protection. 
The political problems which were the legacy of the Civil 
War had almost entirely given place to problems of an 
economic nature. In the earlier part of this administra- 
tion, the Republicans attempted to pass an election law 
providing for federal supervisors at the polls. It was 
aimed especially at some of the Southern States, where, 
it was alleged, voters were intimidated. Certain Repub- 
lican Senators from the Western States, deeming the 
co-operation of Southern Senators in the struggle for 
silver of more importance than this election law (the 
so-called Force Bill), were apathetic in their support of 
the measure, and the bill failed to become law. Business 
interests had become more important than former political 
issues. In the Presidential campaign of 1892 the Repub- 
licans forcibly reaffirmed the doctrine of protection, and 
renominated President Harrison for President, and White- 
law Reid, of New York, for Vice-President. The 
Democrats as emphatically denounced the protective 
policy, and again nominated Grover Cleveland for Presi- 
dent, and Adlai E. Stevenson, of Illinois, for Vice- 
President. The People's party, the successor of the 
Greenback or National party (§ 817), declared in favor of 
the free coinage of silver, a graduated income tax, state 
control of railroads, and state loans to the farming class. 
The nominees of the People's party were General James 
B. Weaver, of Iowa, for President, and James G. Field, 
of Virginia, for Vice-President. The Prohibition party 



488 CLEVELAND AND HARRISON [1893 

(§ 840) again put candidates in the field — John Bidwell, 
of CaHfornia, for President, and James B. CranfiU, of 
Texas, for Vice-President. The election resulted in a 
sweeping victory for the Democrats. The Democrats at 
the same time gained control of both branches of Con- 
gress.^ 



(Ill) Cleveland's Second Adminlstration: 1893-7 

Grover Cleveland, N. Y., President. Adlai E. Stevenson, IlL, Vice-President. 

855. The Industrial Depression. — The Democrats had 
won a decided victory in the Presidential election of 1892 ; 
and as they had a majority in Congress, they were pre- 
pared speedily to revise the tariff and lower the duties on 
imports. A severe business crisis beginning in May, 
1893, compelled them, however, first of all to attend to 
financial measures. The panic among business men came 
very suddenly. During the summer of 1 893 banks and 
many business houses failed daily, money was hoarded and 
became abnormally scarce, factories were shut down, and 
thousands of workmen were thrown out of employment. 
P^vcn the brilliant success of the World's Fair at Chicago 
(§ 845) was not sufficient to remove the gloomy appre- 
hensions prevalent among the people generally. The 
President called Congress to meet in special session on 
August 7, and urged upon that body the necessity of 
speedily passing laws to remove the fear and distrust felt 
in business circles. He pointed out in particular the 
necessity for the immediate repeal of portions of the 
Sherman law (§ 843). 

1 Cleveland and Stevenson obtained 277 of the 444 electoral votes. Of the 
popular vote no ticket received a clear majority, over a million votes being 
cast for the candidates of the People's party, which controlled 22 votes in 
the electoral college, the remaining 145 going to the Republican candidates. 



1893] REPEAL OF THE SHERMAN LAW 489 

856. The Repeal of the Sherman Law. — There were con- 
flicting opinions as to the cause of the troubles in business, 
but there was a tolerably general agreement upon the 
necessity for the repeal of the law requiring the purchase 
of silver (§ 843). The government gave its notes for the 
silver which it got under this law. These notes circulated 
as money, and their holders could exchange them for coin 
at the United States Treasury. The Treasury officials 
felt obliged to give gold coin in exchange for these notes 
when asked to do so. Thus the monthly purchases of 
silver resulted in putting out a number of notes, many of 
which were ultimately presented for payment in gold coin. 
In this and in other ways the stock of gold coin at the 
disposal of the Treasury was being depleted, and there 
were fears that if the process continued the government 
could not continue to redeem its notes in gold. More- 
over, the silver which had been obtained was not available 
for redeeming these notes, so long as the note-holders 
preferred gold, and so long as the Treasury continued to 
redeem the notes in gold. It also happened that the 
value of the silver in the government's vaults suddenly 
fell, upon the announcement, on June 26, that thereafter 
the owners of silver in British India could not have that 
metal coined into money. Under the pressure of public 
opinion, the House of Representatives speedily repealed 
the silver-purchase clause of the Sherman law on August 
28. The debate in the Senate was long and wearisome, 
but on November i the Senate voted for repeal. The 
intensity of the business crisis had by this time consider- 
ably abated, but industry showed few signs of reviving, 
and an era of hard times set in. 

857. Bond Issues. — The government's promises, or 
notes, are used very generally as a substitute for coin in 
buying and selling. A dollar bill is thus in reality noth- 



490 CLEVELAND AND HARRISON [1894 

mg but the g-overnment's pledge to give to the holder of 
the bill a dollar coin. Only such coins are " dollars " in 
fact. In order to make these promises good, the govern- 
ment has to keep on hand a stock of coin. The stock of 
gold coin (§ 856) was getting very low when the Secretary 
of the Treasury decided, in January, 1894, to replenish it 
by selling the bonds of the government for gold. When 
governments need more money than they can get im- 
mediately by taxing the people, they frequently borrow 
money and give the lender a bond. Such a bond, when 
issued by our government, is the government's promise 
to pay a certain amount of money every year to the lender 
or bond-owner as interest upon the loan, until finally the 
principal of the loan also is repaid. The amounts thus 
promised the bondholders are obtained from the taxes to 
be raised in the future. Thus the issue of bonds makes 
taxes heavier in the future, and is a wise policy only when 
the immediate need for more revenue is very urgent. 
While the sale of bonds was due in the first place to the 
necessity of getting an ample stock of coin to redeem the 
government's notes, the money obtained from the sale 
of bonds was used in part to pay some of the ordinary 
expenses of running the government, inasmuch as the 
revenue from taxes had fallen off. There were subse- 
quent sales of bonds on three occasions (November, 1 894, 
February, 1895, January, 1896), and thus the nation's 
debt was increased by over $262,000,000. The gold 
obtained in exchange for the bonds enabled the Treasury 
to continue to redeem its notes in gold, but the increase 
thus caused in the national debt made the bond sales very 
unpopular in many sections, while most of those who 
believed in the policy of redeeming government notes in 
gold regarded the bond sales as necessary under the cir- 
cumstances. 



1S94I THE GREAT RAILROAD STRIKE 491 

858. The Great Railroad Strike. — The strife between 
employer and employee (§g 829, 853) in the early part of 
1894 gave rise to several memorable contests, which in 
the summer culminated in tlie railroad strike centring in 
Chicago. In May the workmen in the shops at Pullman, 
near Chicago, demanded higher wages, which were re- 
fused, whereupon they stopped work. In order to aid 
the I'ullman workmen, the American Railway Union, an 
organization of railroad employees, threatened to with- 
draw their members from the service of the companies 
running Pullman cars unless the employers at Pullman 
consented to arbitrate with their workmen. This threat 
was not heeded; and the American Railway Union, 
aided by other labor organizations, began a contest with 
the railroad companies to whose trains Pullman cars were 
attached. The contest thus resolved itself into a struggle 
between the General Managers' Association at Chicago 
on the one side, who controlled the railroad interests, and 
the various labor organizations engaging in the strike on 
the other side. By the end of June the railway traffic 
which centred in Chicago, and especially traffic on the 
lines west of Chicago, was paralyzed. Trains were 
forcibly stopped, Pullman coaches were detached by 
mobs, and much railroad property was destroyed. This 
forcible interference with trains delayed the mails, which 
are under control of the Federal Government. As the 
United States marshals could not afford the needed pro- 
tection to the mail trains, a part of the regular army was 
despatched to the scene of disorder. Only after the 
appearance of these forces was rioting checked and peace 
restored. 

859. The Wilson Bill. — In accordance with the pro- 
gramme outlined by the Democrats in the Presidential 
election (§ 854), there was introduced into Congress in 



492 CLEVELAhlD AND HARRISON [1894 

the closing days of 1893 a tariff measure, called from its 
author the Wilson bill, which reduced the rates of duty 
upon many imports and largely abolished duties on raw 
material brought in from abroad. There was afterward 
added to the measure a proposal to tax incomes, and in 
this form the bill was adopted by the House of Repre- 
sentatives, and was sent to the Senate. The Senate 
proceeded to modify many sections of the House measure, 
and made smaller reductions in existing duties than had 
been contemplated in the original bill. In this modified 
form the bill passed the Senate on July 3, 1894. The 
House refused to accede to the changes proposed by the 
Senate, and for a time it looked as though no new tariff 
measure might be passed. In the struggle between the 
two bodies the President expressed his sympathy with the 
House as against the Senate. Finally, on August 13, 
the House reluctantly acceded to the bill in the form in 
which it had passed the Senate, and ten days thereafter 
it became law without the signature of the President, who 
chose thus, by withholding his signature, to express his 
disapproval of the action of certain Democratic Senators, 
The bill as passed removed all duty from the imports of 
raw wool, but still imposed duties on many other raw 
materials. The House, after accepting the changes made 
in the measure by the Senate, immediately passed acts 
which put many of these raw materials on the list free of 
duty, but these bills failed to pass the Senate. 

860. The Income-tax Decision. — The struggle over the 
tariff measure had already stirred up much ill feeling 
among the Democrats. The various financial measures 
continually debated in Congress, as well as the policy of 
the Treasury (§ 857), tended also rapidly to create two 
distinct factions within the party, when in the spring of 
1 895 the Supreme Court rendered a decision which 



1S95] THH yENEZUELA DISPUTE 493 

abolished the income tax (g 859), the f^ivorite device of 
one win<j of the party, and the hist financial reliance of 
the other winq-. The income tax had been grafted upon 
the original Wilson bill (§ 859) at the demand of many 
of the Southern and Western Democrats in Congress, who 
thought that such a tax would apportion the burden of 
Federal taxation more justly than heretofore. In a law- 
suit which had been appealed to the Supreme Court 
(§ 283), that tribunal decided that the income tax pro- 
vision of the Wilson bill was not constitutional. The 
Constitution gives certain powers to Congress, and in 
some cases prescribes how such powers are to be exer- 
cised. In case the Supreme Court decides that a law 
passed by Congress violates a provision of the Constitu- 
tion, the law ceases to exist. This was the case with the 
income tax. The Treasury was thus cut off from 
obtaining very considerable amounts of money which it 
had counted upon receiving, and was forced to sell bonds 

(b^ 857)- 

861. The Venezuela Dispute. — The country was startled 
on Dec. 17, 1895, by a special message sent by the 
President to Congress upon Great Britain's refusal to 
arbitrate certain disputed points with Venezuela. The 
territory of British Guiana in South America is contiguous 
to Venezuela, and the boundary line between the two 
countries had long been in dispute. British subjects occu- 
pied certain lands claimed by Venezuela, and Great 
Britain refused to submit to arbitration the question of the 
rightful ownership of the territory in c^uestion. The 
United States insisted that Great Britain should submit 
these territorial claims to arbitration, and based its demand 
upon the Monroe Doctrine (§§ 420, 695, 770). As this 
demand by the United States had been refused, the Presi- 
dent suggested the creation of a commission to determine 



494 CLEVELAND AND HARRISON [1896 

the true divisional line, and asserted the necessity of resist- 
ing by every means in our power the future occupation or 
control by Great Britain of an)' territor)' \\hich the com- 
mission might determine belonged of right to Venezuela. 
The implied possibility of war with England caused deep 
excitement, and great commotion in commercial circles. 
Congress authorized the President to name the commis- 
sion, which when duly appointed began its investigation. 
Meanwhile diplomatic negotiations between the govern- 
ments of the United States and Great Britain continued, 
and resulted finally, in November, 1896, in the draft of a 
treaty between Venezuela and Great Britain for the settle- 
ment of the question. An impartial tribunal was to be 
named, and was to decide upon the true boundary, but it 
was agreed that fifty years' continuous holding of disputed 
territory by settlers sliould constitute a valid title to terri- 
tory so occupied. Upon the conclusion of this treaty, the 
Venezuelan Commission of the United States determined 
not to render a decision upon the location of the true 
boundary line, and ceased their investigation. The 
tribunal rendered its decision in 1899, and sustained the 
main contentions of Great Britain. 

862. Utah was admitted into the Union in 1896. It 
had been organized as a Territory in 1850 (§ 555), and 
became the final seat of the Mormons (§ 822). In 1893 
a bill to admit Utah as a State passed the House of 
Representatives. The committee reporting the bill 
declared that polygamy was virtually suppressed and that 
there need be no fear of its revival. The bill passed the 
Senate July 10, 1894, and the State became a member of 
the Union in January, 1896. 

863. Cuba. — In February, 1894, there began in the 
Island of Cuba a rebellion against Spain, which owned the 
island and governed it liarshly. Much sympathy was felt 



1897] aVIL-SERyiCE REFORM 495 

in the United States for the insuri^ents, and fihbustering 
expeditions were fitted out in the United States or off its 
coasts to aid the rebelHon. These efforts were unlawful, 
and were suppressed where possible by the Federal 
officials. War between the United States and Spain 
seemed not unlikely. Both Houses of Congress, early in 
1896, declared in favor of recognizing the struggle to be 
a revolutionar}^ war rather than a mere insurrection. On 
July 30 the President issued a proclamation of neutrality, 
warning all persons against unlawfully making war on the 
Spanish forces in Cuba. In December, 1896, it looked 
for a time as though Congress might pass resolutions pur- 
porting to recognize the independence of Cuba. At this 
juncture the Secretary of State, Richard Olney, declared 
publicly that the power to recognize an independent state 
rested exclusively with the President, and announced, 
with thinly veiled contempt, that the resolution pending 
in the Senate, if passed, w^ould be only "an expression 
of opinion by the eminent gentlemen who might vote for 
it. ' ' The resolution never came to a vote, and the danger 
of war with Spain for a time diminished. 

864. Extension of the Merit System.- — There are two 
theories held about appointment to ordinary positions 
under the government. One theory is that public offices 
are rewards for political work, and should be given to 
useful party men. This is the "spoils system." The 
other theory is that public offices are positions which 
should be filled by the most capable men, irrespective of 
their political leanings, and that where there are numerous 
applicants for office, fitness should be determined by busi- 
ness tests. This is the "merit system," which was 
largely extended by President Cleveland by an order of 
May 6, 1896, whereby 30,000 additional positions were 
put under the merit system. 



496 CLEVELAND AND HARRISON [1896 

865. The Presidential Campaign. — The Presidential elec- 
tion of 1896 was one of the most memorable political 
contests in our history. The hard times had given rise 
to great discontent, and many people advocated the free 
coinage of silver as the remedy for the business depres- 
sion. The "silver question" thus became the issue of 
the hour, and the tariff was little discussed. Advocates 
of the free coinage of silver were at first to be found in 
both of the great parties. In the Republican nominating 
convention at St. Louis a small party of silver men 
"bolted," that is, left the organization, inasmuch as the 
convention declared against the free coinage of silver 
unless by arrangement with other nations. William 
McKinley, of Ohio (§ 842), was nominated for President, 
and Garret A. Hobart, of New Jersey, for Vice-President. 
The advocates of the free coinage of silver were relatively 
more numerous in the Democratic party than in the 
Republican ranks. The Democratic convention at Chicago 
therefore declared for the free coinage of silver at the 
ratio of 16 to i, without "waiting for the aid or consent 
of any other nation," and nominated William J. Bryan, 
of Nebraska, for President, and Arthur Sewall, of Maine, 
for Vice-President. The People's party (§ 854), or Popu- 
lists, approved of free silver coinage, and nominated Mr. 
Bryan for President, and Thomas E. Watson, of Georgia, 
for Vice-President. Many Democrats, especially in the 
East and central West, who were opposed to the Chicago 
platform, held an independent convention at Indianapolis 
in September. Here they declared against the free 
coinage of silver, indorsed the administration of President 
Cleveland (whose financial policy had been repudiated 
by the Chicago convention), and named General John 
M. Palmer, of Illinois, and General Simon B. Buckner, of 



1S96] THll ARBITRATION TREATY 497 

Kcntuck}', for I'rcsidcnt and Vice-President, respectively. 
The Prohibitionists and the SociaHst Labor party also put 
tickets in the field. 

866. The Election of 1896. — The struggle centred around 
the silver issue, and after certain combination tickets had 
been arranged between the Populists and the Democrats, 
it became plain that either McKinley or Bryan must be 
elected. At the end of an exciting campaign, one of 
whose features was the breaking up of the exclusive 
Democratic sway in the Southern States (§ 802), McKinley 
and Hobart were elected. The Republican candidates 
obtained a large popular majority, and 271 out of the 447 
electoral votes. 

867. The Arbitration Treaty. — Toward the close of his 
term of office President Cleveland sent to the Senate, 
with his approval, a general treaty of arbitration with 
Great Britain. In 1890 Congress by unanimous vote had 
requested the President to open negotiations for this pur- 
pose with all nations. The purpose of this proposed 
treaty with Great Britain was to provide courts or tribunals 
to settle differences which might arise between the two 
nations, in case a settlement of such differences could not 
be reached by ordinary diplomatic processes. The exist- 
ence of such an arrangement, it was felt, would be an 
additional guarantee of peace between the two great 
English-speaking nations, and would tend to substitute 
for the barbarous expedient of war and carnage a peace- 
ful, reasonable, and Christian method of deciding inter- 
national quarrels. The treaty was rejected by the Senate 
shortly after at the expiration of President Cleveland's 
term of office. 

868. The Leading Events of the administrations of 
Cleveland and Harrison were as follows : 



49^ CLEVELAND AND HARRISON [1S85-96 

1885-9: Cleveland's First Term of Office. 

1885 : " Labor troubles " began § 829 

Contract Labor Act 829 

1886: Presidential Succession Act 831 

1887: Canadian fisheries dispute 834 

Interstate Commerce Act 832 

Presidential Election Act 831 

Tenure of Office Act repealed 831 

Anarchist riot at Chicago 829 

1888 : Four new States admitted 835 

Chinese Immigration Act 829 

1889: Panama Canal Company fails 834 

Samoan dispute 834 

Election of Harrison 840 

End of the first century under the 

Constitution 840 

1889-93 : Harrison's Term of Office. 

1889: Struggle over the rules 841 

1890: Chicago designated as tlie site of the 

World's Fair 845 

Dependent Pension Bill passed 844 

Idaho admitted 846 

* Wyoming admitted . „ 846 

The Silver Law passed 843 

The JMcKinley Tariff 842 

1891 : Close season declared in leering Sea.. 848 

Riot in New Orleans 849 

Riot in Valparaiso, Chili 850 

1892: Chinese Exclusion Act passed 851 

Homestead riots 853 

Presidential election 854 

1893 : Revolution in Hawaii 852 

1893-7: Cleveland's Second Term of Office. 

1893: Industrial depression 855 

World's Fair at Chicag(^ 855 

Repeal of the Sherman Law 856 

1894 : First bond issue 857 

Railroad strike 858 

Wilson Bill passed 859 

1895 : Income Tax decision 860 

Venezuelan Message 861 

1896: Utah admitted 862 



1S96-7J SUrPU:M[:NTARY READING 499 

1896 : Cuban question § 863 

The merit system extended 111 the 

civil service 864 

Presidential election 865 

1897: Arbitration treaty negotiated 867 

Topics for Further Study. 

1. Early plans for an isthmian canal. 

2. The secret ballot laws of a particular State {e.g., Massa- 
chusetts). 

3. The powers and duties of the Speaker. 

4. The Venezuelan question and the Monroe doctrine. 

5. Early suggestions of American intervention in Cuba. 

Supplementary Reading. 

The main authorities continue a? in Chapter XX. On the 
movement for civil-service reform see, besides the annual 
reports of the Civil Service Commissioners, the annual reports 
of the National Civil Service League, George William Curtis's 
Oratio7is and Addresses, vol, 11., and Cary's Cur/is. The impor- 
tance of periodicals, as fields for political discussion, becomes 
noticeable in this period. 



CHAPTER XXIII 



EXPANSION 
1897-1900 

Wm. McKinley, O., President. Gakret A. Hdbart, N. J., Vice-President* 

869. President McKinley. — The President owed his 
election, not to RepubHcans alone, but also to Democrats 

and Independents who, 
while unable to indorse 
Republican policy in gen- 
eral, were alarmed lest 
financial disaster should fol- 
low the election of Mr. 
Bryan, and felt that a sound 
and stable currency was the 
paramount issue of the cam- 
paign. Mr. McKinley had 
had administrative experi- 
ence as governor of Ohio, 
and was well known 
throughout the country as 
the foremost champion of 
protection, and the official 
sponsor for the tariff act of 
1890. His inaugural ad- 
dress, while containing a 
promise to do what he could for international bimetallism, 
announced his purpose to use every effort to keep gold 

* Vice-President Hobart .lied November 21, 1899. 

500 




William McKinley. 



ituJe 02 West from 87 GiccMiwii-h 




THE UNITED STATES «> 

£;CLUSIVE OF INSULAR POSSESSIONS 
Scale of Miles 

60 300 2U0 300 400 -,,■,-_ 

i^'— 1 1 i 1 1 Key n^p 



)"West 1.5 from ■Waslnn^'ton 1 



1897] THF. DINCI.HY TARIFF 501 

and silver at a parit}'. lie insisted that adecjuate pro- 
vision, on the protective principle, should be made for the 
revenue, in order to })ut an end to the deficit, which had 
increased during' the last months of Mr. Cleveland's 
administration. An extra session of Congress was called 
to deal with the tariff. In the construction of the cabinet, 
John Sherman, of Ohio, was made Secretary of State, 
Lyman J. Gage, of Illinois, Secretary of the Treasury, 
John D. Long, of Massachusetts, Secretary of the Navy, 
and Russell A. Alger, of Michigan, Secretary of War. 

870. The Dingley Tariff. — Congress met in extra session 
March 15, 1897. As the opposition of the silver Repub- 
licans in the Senate bade fair to make tariff legislation in 
that body difficult, the Ways and Means Committee of the 
House, of which Nelson Dingley, of Maine, was chair- 
man, had already taken the matter in hand, and prepared 
a revision of the tariff designed to secure increased 
revenue. The bill was introduced on the day Congress 
met, and consideration of it was facilitated by an agree- 
ment of the Republican leaders, under which Speaker 
Reed, who had been re-elected, appointed only such 
committees as would enable the House to organize, and 
consider the tariff and appropriation bills. The estimated 
increase of revenue, as stated by Mr. Dingley, was from 
seventy to one hundred million dollars. The rates were, 
in general, a compromise between those of 1890 and 
those of 1894; but the increase of rates in some schedules, 
the transfer of a number of articles from the free to the 
dutiable list, and the substitution of specific for ad valo7'evt 
duties, operated to make the actual increase, in many 
cases, very considerable. The bill was passed March 
31, by a large majority, and the House then kept in 
nominal session, without transacting other business, by 
adjournment for successive periods of three days, while 



5 o 2 EXPANSION [1897 

the bill was under consideration in the Senate. The 
organization of the Senate was delayed by the opposition 
of' the Populists and silver Republicans, who held the 
balance of power; and it was July 24 before the bill, with 
some modifications, passed the Senate and received the 
approval of the President. 

871. The Revenue. — The knowledge that the Dingley 
tariff would raise the duties led for several months to a 
great increase of importation, the effect of which was to 
decrease the monthly deficit. This movement ceased 
with the passage of the act, and expenditures again 
showed a large excess over receipts. The gold reserve, 
however, remained at about $150,000,000; while im- 
proved business conditions, a large demand for breadstuffs 
on account of crop failures abroad, and a sharp decline 
in the market price of silver, tended to raise confidence 
in the financial stability of the country, and to weaken 
the influence of the free-silver advocates. 

872. The Monetary Commission. — In fulfilment of the 
promise in his inaugural address, and under the authority 
of an act of Congress passed just before the close of 
Mr. Cleveland's administration, President MeKinley in 
April appointed three commissioners to further the cause 
of international bimetallism. The commissioners visited 
Europe, and had interviews with various financial and 
governmental authorities ; but the refusal of the govern- 
ment of India to open its mints to the free coinage of 
silver practically extinguished hope of favorable inter- 
national action in the direction of bimetallism. 

873. Relations with Cuba. — The relations between the 
United States and Cuba (§ 863), instead of improving, 
had continued to grow more acute. During the last 
months of the Cleveland administration, there were fre- 
quent calls upon the government for the protection of 



1^97] .■il-l'.llKS IN CUBA 503 

American citizens in Cuba, nian\' of tlie persons, however, 
being' naturalized Cubans who had aided the insurgents. 
Numerous fihbustering expeditions were also set on foot; 
but the United States did its best to preserve neutrality, 
and one of the most notorious filibustering vessels, the 
Tlircc Friends, was seized and forfeited. In May, 1897, 
President McKinley sent a special commissioner to Cuba, 
and his report was followed by claims upon Spain for 
indemnity on account of the alleged ill-treatment of cer- 
tain American citizens. In the mean time, the Senate 
had passed a resolution declaring that a state of war 
existed between Spain and the Cubans, and giving the 
latter belligerent rights; but President McKinley was 
strongly averse to such a step, and the resolution was 
not acted upon b}' the House. An appropriation of 
$50,000 was made, however, for the relief of distressed 
Americans in the island. The appointment of Gen. 
Stewart L. Woodford, of New York, as minister to Spain 
was followed by rumors that an ultimatum was to be pre- 
sented to the Spanish government. The activity of the 
Spanish forces in Cuba, under the command of General 
Weyler, meanwhile increased, but without substantial 
results in the way of the subjugation of the country. 

874. Spanish Policy. — The accession of the Sagasta 
ministr)- to power, in October, 1897, was followed by the 
recall of Weyler, who was replaced by Ramon Blanco as 
governor-general. Under the more liberal policy of 
Sagasta, conditions in Cuba promised for a time material 
improvement. The rcconccntrados — people from the 
country districts who had been compelled to give up their 
homes and live in the towns, where their crowded condi- 
tion and lack of subsistence had bred great suffering — 
were given greater opportunities to work, and even 
allowed to return, in some cases, to their plantations. 



504 EXPANSION [1898 

Imprisoned American citizens were released, and the 
exportation of tobacco, which had been prohibited, was 
again allowed to a limited extent. A plan for autono- 
mous government in Cuba and Porto Rico, promulgated by 
royal decree in November, promised the Cubans a legis- 
lative assembly, and local assemblies for the provinces 
and municipalities; but the control to be retained by 
Spain was still so great that the autonomy was more 
nominal than real. A cabinet, all but one of whose 
members were Cubans, was appointed in January, 1898; 
but the whole plan was summarily rejected by the insur- 
gents, who. declared their purpose to accept nothing short 
of independence. The efforts of Blanco to negotiate with 
the insurgent generals, Gomez and Garcia, were unsuc- 
cessful, and the guerrilla warfere continued. 

875. The Policy of the Administration. — In his annual 
message in December, 1897, President McKinley reviewed 
the Cuban situation at length, and announced that, while 
the United States expected Spain to restore order in Cuba 
without unnecessary delay, ' ' a reasonable chance 
should be given ' ' to prove the asserted efficacy of the 
new order of things ' ' ; but that "if it shall hereafter 
appear to be a duty imposed by our obligations to our- 
selves, to civilization and humanity, to intervene with 
force, it shall be without fault on our part, and only 
because the necessity for such action w ill be so clear as 
to command the support and approval of the civilized 
world." The reports of American consuls regarding the 
pitiable condition of the rccoiicciitrados led to renewed 
efforts for their relief. A public appeal was issued for 
funds, and a national Cuban Relief Committee was 
appointed. l^y these means a large sum of money was 
raised, and considerable quantities of supplies were sent 
to Cuba. 



1898] LOSS OF THE MA INF. 5^5 

876. The De Lome Affair. — 'l"hc final decision to put an 
end b}' force to a situation wliich was rapidly becominc^ 
intolerable was materially hastened by two unfortunate 
events. February 8, 1898, the "Cuban Junta," as it 
was called, at New York, representini,'' the Cuban insur- 
gents, published a private letter which had been stolen 
from the mails, written by Senor Uupuy de Lome, the 
Spanish minister at Washington, to the editor of a Spanish 
newspaper. The letter referred in terms of extreme dis- 
paragement to the President, and charged him with 
"catering to the rabble." The minister admitted the 
authenticity of the letter, and at once resigned. The 
Spanish government disclaimed responsibility for the 
letter, or sympathy with its objectionable sentiments ; but 
the affair left a painful impression. 

877. The Loss of the Maine. — Ostensibly on a friendly 
visit, but in reality to afford protection to American in- 
terests in Havana, the battleship Maine had been sent to 
Havana in the latter part of January, 1898. On the 
15th of February, the day after the receipt of a note 
from the Spanish government repudiating the De Lome 
letter, the Maine was destroyed by an explosion, and 266 
of the crew killed or drowned. Captain Sigsbee, in tele- 
graphing a brief report of the disaster, urged that judg- 
ment be suspended until the cause of the explosion could 
be determined, and the responsibility fixed. A proposal 
from Spain for a joint inquiry was declined by the United 
States, and each country conducted an independent in- 
vestigation. The American board of inquiry reported 
that the explosion was due to a submarine mine, but that 
there was no evidence to show who was responsible. 
The Spanish board reported that the explosion had taken 
place inside the vessel, and had not been caused from 
outside. 



5o6 F.XP/iNStON \ 1 S98 

878. The Impending Crisis — March 27, 1898, President 
McKinley proposed that Spain grant an armistice in Cuba 
until October i , and revoke the decrees against the rccoii- 
centrados; and offered to use his influence to bring about 
peace. In reply, Spain offered to suspend hostilities if 
the insurgents would ask for it, and to entrust the arrange- 
ment of peace to the Cuban Parliament, which was to 
meet May 4. The reply was pronounced unsatisfactory. 
The Americans still in Cuba, including the consuls, began 
to leave. A protest from the autonomous government 
against intervention by the United States, and a declara- 
tion by the Cuban Junta that intervention without recog- 
nition of the Cuban Republic would be resisted by the 
insurgents, were followed by a joint note from the repre- 
sentatives of the leading Eiuropean Powers, expressing 
their hope for a peaceful solution of the difficulty. On 
the loth of April an unconditional armistice was pro- 
claimed by Spain, but the proclamation came too late. 
The next day President McKinley sent a special message 
to Congress, urging the impropriety of recognizing "the 
so-called Cuban Republic " or the belligerent status of the 
insurgents, declaring that "the war must stop," and 
asking authority to intervene by force and end hostilities. 

879. Declaration of War. — In March, Congress, at the 
request of the President, had appropriated $50,000,000 
for the national defence. On the receipt of the message 
of April II, Congress passed resolutions declaring that 
the people of Cuba " are and of right ought to be free and 
independent," but disclaiming any intention on the part 
of the United States of "exercising sovereignty, jurisdic- 
tion, or control " over the island " except for the pacifica- 
tion thereof" ; demanding that Spain " at once relinquish 
its authority and government " in Cuba; and "directing 
and empowering ' ' the President to use force to give effect 



189S] MANILA 507 

to the resolutions. As Spain refused to accept the ulti- 
matum forthwith submitted by the United States, diplo- 
matic relations between the two countries ceased ; and 
on April 25 Congress passed a formal declaration of war. 

880. Preparations for War. — For some weeks before 
hostilities actually broke out, both Spain and the United 
States had been making active preparations for war. 
Ships of war were bought abroad, and many vessels suit- 
able for naval purposes were purchased at home and 
refitted. Coast fortifications were strengthened, and the 
principal harbors mined. On April 23 — -two days after 
the date on which, by the declaration of Congress, the 
war had begun — the President called for 125,000 volun- 
teers ; and these, with the troops of the regular army, 
were assembled at Chickamauga, Tampa, and other con- 
venient points. 

881. Manila. — The first battle of the war took place in 
the bay of Manila. Commodore Dewey, in command of 
the American squadron in Asiatic waters, attacked the 
Spanish fleet at Manila on the morning of May i, and 
totally destroyed it. The ciefences at Cavite were also 
forced to surrender, and the city of Manila, though not at 
once occupied, was under American control. The two 
fleets were unequally matched, and the Spanish admiral 
was taken by surprise ; but the unexpected and decisive 
victory aroused great enthusiasm in the United States. 
The Philippine insurgents, under the lead of Aguinaldo, 
were given arms from the arsenal at Cavite, and in the 
course of the next two months compelled the Spanish 
troops to concentrate in Manila. American troops from 
San Francisco, under the command of Major-General 
Merritt, arrived the last of June ; and on the 1 3th of 
August the city was taken by a joint attack of the land 
and naval forces. 



5o8 EXPANSIOhl [1898 

882. The Santiago Campaign. — Three days before the 
formal declaration of war, President McKinley had pro- 
claimed a blockade of the north coast of Cuba; and a 
squadron from Key West, under Rear- Admiral Sampson, 
was at once dispatched to make the blockade effective. 
A Spanish fleet under Admiral Cervera, collected at the 
Cape Verde Islands on the outbreak of hostilities, arrived 
at Santiago de Cuba, on the south coast. May 19, and 
was there blockaded by an American squadron under 
Commodore Schley. June 22 an American force of 14,000 
regulars and 2500 volunteers, under command of Major- 
General Shaftcr, landed at Daiquiri, seventeen miles from 
Santiago. In the face of great natural disadvantages and 
stubborn resistance, they took the Spanish outposts at La 
Quasima on the 24th, and on July i stormed the defences 
on the heights of San Juan and Caney. Two days later 
the Spanish fleet attempted to escape from the harbor, 
only to be destroyed by Sampson's squadron. The 
Spanish lost four cruisers and two torpedo-boat destroyers, 
about 600 men killed or drowned, and upwards of 1700 
prisoners. Santiago still holding out, it was bombarded ; 
on the 17th it surrendered, together with most of the 
province of the same name. The Spanish troops were 
sent back to Spain. In the mean time, the American 
army had become so weakened b\' privation and disease 
as to make necessary its removal from the countr}^; and 
the entire body of troops was accordingly transported to 
a camp at Montauk, on Long Island. Their place was 
taken by troops, most of them colored, selected because 
thought to be "immune," that is, not likely to be 
attacked by yellow fever or other tropical diseases. 

883. The Occupation of Porto Rico. — In May, Sampson's 
fleet had bombarded the defences of San Juan, Porto Rico, 
but without particular results. The invasion of Porto Rico 



1S98] PEACE 509 

followed upon the surrender of Santiai^o. The iVnierican 
expedition, made up chiefly of volunteers, was under the 
command of Major-General Miles, the commanding gen- 
eral of the United States army. Landing on the southern 
coast the last of Jul}% the Americans gained control, by 
the middle of August, of the larger part of the island, 
nowhere encountering serious opposition, and even being 
welcomed by the inhabitants. Although the campaign 
was attended with none of the hardships of that against 
Santiago, the troops nevertheless suffered severely from 
fever and other diseases. 

884. Friction with the Cubans. — At the beginning of 
the war, the Cuban insurgents had received supplies from 
the American troops, and in June a body of them, under 
General Garcia, had cooperated with an American force 
in taking Guantanamo, about thirty miles east of Santiago. 
As the campaign went on, however, joint action became 
more and more difficult; and when, in the negotiations 
for the surrender of Santiago, General Garcia was not 
consulted, and afterward the Cuban soldiers were not 
allowed to enter the city, he and his followers withdrew, 
and for a time operated independently. 

885. Peace. — It was evident from the first that Spain 
could not hope for final success in a war with the United 
States ; and the loss of the Spanish colonies, together 
with the overwhelming superiority of the American navy, 
left Spain no other alternative than to sue for peace. 
Preliminaries of peace were signed at Washington, August 
12. the French ambassador acting on behalf of Spain. 
Special commissioners were appointed to arrange for the 
evacuation of Cuba and Porto Rico. The peace commis- 
sioners of the two countries met at Paris, October i, and 
on December 10 the treaty of peace was signed. By the 
treaty, Spain renounced sovereignty over Cuba, and ceded 



5 1 o EXPANSION [ 1 8 9 S 

to the United States Porto Rico and other Spanish West 
Indian islands, the island of Guam, in the Ladrones, 
already occupied by an American force, and the Philip- 
pines. The United States agreed to pay Spain $20,000,- 
000, and to admit Spanish ships and goods to Philippine 
ports for ten years on the same terms as were accorded to 
American ships and merchandise. There was strong 
opposition to the treaty in the Senate, principally on 
account of the proposed retention of the Philippines by 
the United States; but it was finally ratified, February 6, 
1899, and the exchange of ratifications in April completed 
the formal restoration of peace. 

886. Finances of the War. — A war revenue act, brought 
forward by Mr. Dingley in April, 1898, increased the 
internal-revenue taxes on beer and tobacco, imposed 
stamp taxes on most legal and business documents, bank 
checks, proprietary articles, etc., and authorized the issue 
of bonds to the amount of $400,000,000. The war loan 
was popular, and was largely oversubscribed ; while the 
growing volume of trade enabled the country to bear 
without difficulty the unlooked-for expenses of the war. 

887. Foreign Relations. — A report gained currency early 
in the war, to the effect that the formation of some sort 
of a European coalition to aid Spain had been prevented 
by the refusal of Great Britain to take part in it. This, 
together with other friendly acts on the part of Great 
Britain during the progress of the war, caused the popular 
feeling toward that country to become, for a time, 
extraordinarily cordial. There was much talk about an 
Anglo-American alliance, and an Anglo-American League 
was formed in London. In May, 1898, a joint commis- 
sion was created to arrange a settlement of pending 
differences between the two countries. On the other 
hand, reports that Germany had planned to interfere in 



1897] 



HA IV A II 



511 



the Philippines led to some manifestations of ill-feelini; 
and resentment, which fortunately, however, did not 
pass far beyond the field of newspaper and partisan dis- 
cussion. 

888. Hawaii. — In June, 1897, President McKinley 
transmitted to the Senate a treaty providing for the 
annexation of Hawaii. In the Senate the treaty encoun- 






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To iloni/n. J3602_mV''J - ^. 



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To -4«p»r'o. 3.110 .«.7r. 



MOLOKAI i-"^-"-'!**' »!,/ 



***-^~4-~^ 




Hawaiian Islands. 



tered strong opposition, the effect of annexation upon the 
sugar industry in the United States being one of the chief 
points considered. As it appeared that the two-thirds 
majorit}' necessary, under the Constitution, to ratify the 
treaty could probably not be obtained, resort was had to 
a joint resolution. In this form the proposition received 
the approval of both Houses of Congress, and August I 2 
Hawaii passed formally into the possession of the United 
States. Commissioners were at once appointed to draw 
up a plan of government. The commissioners made their 
report in December, but no action under it was taken by 
Congress. Hawaii continued under military govxn'nment 
until April, 1900, when a bill establishing a Territorial 



512 EXPANSION [1897 

government, making the Hawaiians citizens of the United 
States, and giving the Territory a delegate in Congress, 
passed both Houses and received the approval of the 
President. 

889. Currency Reform. — The failure of the monetary 
commissioners (^ 872) to secure the opening of the Indian 
mints to the free coinage of silver did not, apparently, 
discourage that body, and the commissioners in Europe 
continued to be for some time active on behalf of bimetal- 
lism. In the mean time, hopeful steps in the direction of 
currency reform were being taken at home. A conference 
of prominent financiers and business men met at Indian- 
apolis in January, 1897, and the discussions attracted 
general attention. In October, Secretary Gage submitted 
a plan of reform, including, among other features, the 
issue of refunding gold bonds, and changes in the national 
banking law so as to increase the issue and circulation of 
bank-notes. The outbreak of war with Spain, however, 
joined to the active opposition of the sih-er men in Con- 
gress, for a time prevented further action. In the framing 
of the war revenue act, the silver contention was compro- 
mised by providing for the coinage of the silver in the 
treasury, at the rate of $1,500,000 a month, and the sus- 
pension of further issues of silver certificates. The demand 
for reform culminated in the passage of a bill, in March, 
1900, declaring the gold dollar the unit of value, all other 
money to be kept at a parity with it; and establishing a 
gold reserve of $150,000,000, pledged for the redemption 
of greenbacks and treasury notes, and to be maintained, 
if necessary, by the issue of bonds. Provision was also 
made for refunding the national debt, the gradual replace- 
ment of treasury notes by silver certificates, and the ex- 
tension of the privileges of national banks in regard to 
issuing notes. 



1899] ANTI-TRUST AGIT.-1TION 513 

890. The Pacific Railroads. — During I'resident McKin- 
lc}''.s administration the United States largely ended its 
connection with the various Pacific railroads, which had 
been originally constructed with financial aid fi-om the 
national government. In November, 1H97, a sale of the 
Union Pacific Railway, under proceedings begun by the 
government towards the close of Mr. Cleveland's admin- 
istration, was effected, the United States receiving an 
amount equal to the principal and interest of its claim. 
In February, 1898, the sale of the Kansas Pacific Railway 
was also effected, under terms somewhat less favorable to 
the government. Similar arrangements were later made 
with the Central I'acific and Western Pacific roads. 

891. Anti-Trust Agitation. — The period of President 
McKinley's administration was distinguished by a wide- 
spread popular discussion of trusts, and by many attempts 
to regulate or suppress trusts by law. Many of the State 
legislatures devoted a large share of their attention to the 
question, and in some of the States severe laws were 
enacted. A decision of the Supreme Court, in March, 
1897, that the Anti-Trust Act of 1890 applied to railroads 
as well as to manufacturing and trading corporations, and 
that the act made illegal any combination in restraint of 
trade or commerce, whether the restraint were reasonable 
or not, made a deep impression. During 1899, however, 
trusts and industrial combinations were formed on an 
extraordinary scale, many of them under the laws of 
Delaware and New Jersey, which are particularly fiivor- 
able to such incorporation. The result was a revival of 
popular opposition to great aggregations of capital, and a 
renewed demand for State and national action. Confer- 
ences on the subject were held at Chicago and St. Louis, 
and it was thought by some that the question of trusts 
would be a leading issue in the coming presidential cam- 



514 EXPANSION [ I S 9 7 

paign. Just before the adjournment of Congress, in June, 
1900, a proposed anti-trust amendment to the Constitution 
was debated in the Senate, and disposed of by reference 
to a committee; but a bill to amend the act of 1890, so 
as to give the United States increased powers of control 
over trusts, was passed by the House of Representatives. 

892. The Civil Service. — In his inaugural address, Presi- 
dent McKinley announced his adherence to the letter and 
spirit of civil-service reform ; and this, together with his 
previous record in Congress, inspired much confidence 
among those who had most at heart the complete over- 
throw of the spoils system in national administration. It 
was further given out that fourth-class, or "presidential," 
postmasters, not shown to be unfit, would be allowed to 
serve out their four-year terms. In July, 1897, an 
executive order directed that removals from places filled 
by competitive examination should be made only for 
cause, and that the removed ofificial should be given a 
hearing in his own defence. Violations of the rule, how- 
ever, soon began to multiply. Attempts to enforce 
observance by judicial process failed, the courts holding 
that the enforcement of the rules was a matter within the 
jurisdiction of the President. The policy of the President 
in following the advice of senators from the State con- 
cerned, in making appointments to office, resulted in the 
selection of many unfit and highly objectionable persons 
for important positions; but protests were generally dis- 
regarded. In the departments at Washington, particularly 
the Treasury Department, the observance of the civil-ser- 
vice rules was lax ; while an executive order of July 29, 
1899, withdrawing several thousand places from the classi- 
fied service, was regarded by reformers as a serious 
" backward step. " In Congress there was some display 
of hostility to reform, and the competitive principle was 



1897] THE KLONDIKE GOLD-FIELDS 515 

disregarded in the act making provision for the twelfth 
census. A considerable number of commendable ap- 
pointments did something to excuse, in the public mind, 
the conduct of the Administration in reference to other 
positions; but the net effect of President McKinley's 
course in the matter of the cix'il service was discouraging. 

893. The Klondike Gold-fields.— In the summer of 
1897, the report of the discovery of gold in the Klondike 
region, on the border between Alaska and the British 
possessions, reached the United States. The news was 
followed by a rusli of emigration to the region, which 
continued through the following year. The suffering and 
loss of life, caused by the severity of the climate and the 
hard.ships of the overland route, served but little to dis- 
courage the gold-seekers. The deposit proved to be 
exceedingly rich, and the experiences of miners in Cali- 
fornia, in 1 848-9, were repeated ; while the discovery of 
the new suppHes of gold was of political importance, as 
tending to offset some of the arguments of free-silver 
advocates. The attempt of the Canadian government, 
within whose territory the principal deposits lay, to exact 
royalties on gold exported, and otherwise to secure the 
interests of its own people in the gold-fields, occasioned 
some ill-feeling among the Americans. The presence of 
American troops and Canadian police has been sufficient 
to maintain order; but the anomalous condition of Alaska, 
with a rapidly growing population and important com- 
mercial interests, but without an effective governmental 
organization, has not yet been remedied by appropriate 
legislation. 

894. Samoa. — The relations of the United States with 
Samoa underwent a radical change during President 
McKinley's administration. By the Berlin treaty of 1889, 
the affairs of Samoa were placed under the joint super- 



5 1 6 EXPANSION [1897 

vision of the United States, Great Britain, and Germany. 
On the death of King Mahetoa, in August, 1898, a dis- 
pute arose over the choice of his successor. The Germans 
supported Mataaf^i, while the KngHsh and Americans 
favored Mahetoa Tanu, a son of the late king. The 
election of Mataafa by the native chiefs was set aside by 
a decision of the chief-justice, an American; but the 
German consul refused to recognize Malietoa as king. 
In January, 1 899, the Malietoan government was over- 
thrown, and a provisional government set up. Disputes 
and complications led rapidly to war, and in March Brit- 
ish and American vessels bombarded a number of Samoan 
villages. At the suggestion of Germany, which dis- 
approved of the course taken by the other Powers, a joint 
commission was created to deal with the matter. The 
commissioners succeeded in having the office of king 
abolished, and a provisional government, composed of the 
consuls of the three Powers, set up. In November, a 
partition of the islands was agreed upon. In return for 
the cession by Germany of some islands in the south 
Pacific, Great Britain relinquished to the United States 
and Germany its claims in the Samoan group, and the 
two Powers then divided the islands between them. The 
United States received the island of Tutuila, with the 
important harbor of Pago-Pago, and the other islands east 
of longitude 171° west. 

895. The Proposed Isthmian Canal. — The agitation in 
favor of national aid in the construction of an interoceanic 
canal across Central America (§ 834), which had not 
been allowed to decline, received new impetus as a result 
of the war with Spain, and the sudden rise of important 
American interests in the Pacific. In July, 1897, a 
Nicaragua Canal Commission was appointed, to report on 
the feasibilitv and cost of a canal across Nicaragua, that 



1900J THE CLAYTON-BULIVER. TREATY 517 

country at tlic same time apjiarcnth' withdtaw iny certain 
opposition it liatl lately shown. In his annual message 
in December, 1898, President McKinley recommended 
the construction of a canal to be controlled by the United 
States; but a bill to give effect to the recommendation 
failed to pass both Houses of Congress. An appropriation 
of $1,000,000 was made, however, for the further inves- 
tigation of practicable loutes. The report of the Com- 
mission, submitted in May, 1899, recommended the 
adoption of the route by way of Lake Nicaragua, and 
estimated the cost of the canal at $1 18,000,000. In June 
another commission was appointed, which is still at work. 
896. The Clayton-Bulwer Treaty. —In connection with 
the movement for a canal exclusively under American 
control, the desirability of abrogating the Clayton-Bulwer 
treaty of 1854, between Great Britain and the United 
States, by which the two Powers had agreed that neither 
should attempt to exercise exclusive control over any 
canal across the isthmus of Tehuantepec, was much dis- 
cussed. In February, 1900, a treaty was signed by 
representatives of the two countries, by which Great 
Britain "renounced all right to joint construction, owner- 
ship, or maintenance " of an isthmian canal, while agree- 
ing to join with the United States in guaranteeing the 
neutrality of the canal. In the guarantee of neutrality 
other nations were to be asked to unite. Opposition to 
neutralization resulted in a proposed amendment to the 
treaty in the Senate, providing that the treaty should not 
operate to prevent ' ' measures which the United States 
may find it necessary to take for securmg by its own force 
the defence of the United States and the maintenance of 
public order. ' ' The necessary majority in favor of the 
treaty, in either the original or the amended form, appear- 
ing doubtful, the representatives of the two governments 



5 1 8 EXPANSION [ 1 S 9 9 

signed an agreement extending to March i, 1901, the 
time within which ratifications might be exchanged. 

897. The Hague Conference. — In August, 1898, Count 
Muravieff, the Russian foreign minister, proposed to the 
representatives of other governments at St. Petersburgh 
the holding of an international congress, to consider 
means of stopping the increase of armaments among 
nations, and of bringing about permanent peace. The 
proposal, renewed in more definite form in January, 1899, 
awakened world-wide interest. The conference, compris- 
ing delegates from 27 countries, including the United 
States, met at The Hague, May 18, and remained in 
session until July 29. The conclusions reached were 
embodied in a number of declarations and resolutions, the 
most important of which pledged the Powers agreeing to 
it to resort to mediation or arbitration, wherever possible, 
for the settlement of international disputes, and provided 
for a permanent international tribunal to deal with arbitra- 
tion cases. The arbitration proposals were ratified by the 
Senate of the United States February 5, 1900. 

898. War Department Investigation. — The reports of 
privation and disease among the American troops, both 
at home and in Cuba, during the war with Spain, led to 
general public criticism of the management of the war, and 
to charges of incompetency, favoritism, and corruption in 
the War Department. Indignation was especially aroused 
by the alarming prevalence of typhoid fever in the home 
camps. The reply of friends of the Administration that 
the charges were grossly exaggerated, and that such un- 
favorable conditions as existed w^ere largely the result of 
ignorance and neglect on the part of the troops them- 
selves, failed to satisfy the public ; and in September, 
1898, the Secretary of War asked for an investigation of 
his department. The commission of inquiry, after taking 



1^99] THE IV AR IN THE PHILIPPINES 519 

considerable testimony and x'isitinj;" the camps in the 
United States, made their report in February, 1899. The 
report dismissed the chart^es of cHshonesty as not proven, 
and i)ronounced the general conduct of the war " liighly 
creditable to the department and to the country"; but 
the War Department was criticised for lack of judgment 
in specific instances, as well as for its imperfect organiza- 
tion and "red tape." In July, Secretary Alger resigned, 
his place being taken by Elihu Root, of New York. 

899. The Beef Episode. — The assertion of General Miles, 
in the course of the investigation, that the canned beef 
furnished the troops was unfit for food, coupled with the 
description of the refrigerated beef as "embalmed," or 
chemically preserved, made a great sensation, and led to 
a scandalous denunciation of General Miles by Commis- 
sary-General Eagan. Eagan was court-martialled and 
sentenced to dismissal from the army ; but the President 
commuted the sentence to six years' suspension from rank 
and duty, without loss of pay. • A military court of inquiry 
sustained General Miles 's criticism of the canned beef, 
and pronounced the purchase of 7,000,000 pounds of it 
" a colossal error," but reported that the charge concern- 
ing the refrigerated beef was not borne out by the 
evidence. 

900. The War in the Philippines. — The transfer of the 
Philippines to the United States, at the close of the war 
with Spain, was deeply resented by Aguinaldo and his 
followers, who desired independence. The instructions 
issued to General Otis, in command of the American 
forces at Manila, asserted the sovereignty of the United 
States over the islands, and declared the policy of the 
United States to be one of "benevolent assimilation "; 
but they further stated that those who resisted were to be 
dealt with by " the strong arm of authority." In Jan- 



520 



EXPANSION 



[1899 



uary, 1899, three civil commissioners were appointed to 
act with General Otis and Admiral Dewey in the admin- 



r Hongkong 






South C. 
Bashee Channel. 



MAP OF THE 

.PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 

SCALE OF STATUE MILES 



<® BABUYAN 



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- Cojnai-ang 






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ISLANDS yi % Q tvL 'Y^L^a ^ A, 






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MINDANAO 

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\ 120 O 12^ .-SARANGANI II 



Miiula 



istration of affairs. Before their arrival, however, hostili- 
ties began between the Tagalos, on the island of Luzon, 



1900] THE GOFERNMENT OF THE PHILIPPINES 521 

and the Americans, the Latter being reinforced by about 
10,000 troops from the United States. In such regular 
engagements as took place, the Americans were generally 
successful, and gradually pushed their way into remote 
parts of the island ; but the area actually in undisputed 
American control did not extend more than a few miles 
beyond Manila. American authority was also extended, 
to somewhat greater degree, over the neighboring islands 
of Panay, Cebu, and Negros. The war in Luzon has 
continued, the contest on the part of the natives assuming 
more and more of a guerrilla character, but without sub- 
stantial results so far as the immediate pacification of the 
island is concerned. Various negotiations with the 
American commissioners failed because of the insistence 
of the Filipinos upon independence. Elsewhere than in 
Luzon, American rule has been accepted with much less 
opposition, and " assimilation " appears more promising. 

90L The Government of the Philippines. — The failure of 
Congress to make provision for the government of the 
Philippines has left the control of the islands in the hands 
of the President. In February, 1900. the Philippine 
Commission made a report, and outlined a scheme of 
government. In the same month a new commission was 
appointed, charged with the administration of affairs in 
the archipelago. In the mean time, a provisional organ- 
ization, under a military governor, was effected in Negros, 
and municipal governments were nominally established 
at several places in the provinces of Manila and Cavite. 
The city of Manila, however, remained under martial law, 
though the public schools were opened, and a native 
police system was inaugurated. The Sultan of the Sulu 
Archipelago made an agreement recognizing the sover- 
eignty of the United States, but retaining practical inde- 
pendence in internal affairs. So far, however, the 



522 EXPANSION L1S99 

administrative settlement of the country has been more 
nominal than real, and the guerrilla war in Luzon, and 
occasional outbreaks in other islands, have subjected all 
civil administration to the military necessities. 

902. Cuba.— The control of Cuba passed formally into 
the hands of the United States January i, 1899, and the 
last of the Spanish soldiers shortly afterward embarked 
for Spain. The administration of the island was placed 
in charge of a military governor-general, with army 
officers as governors of the several provinces and the city 
of Havana. In the course of the next few months, a 
form of civil government was gradually put in operation, 
under the supervision of the military authorities. Admin- 
istrative reforms followed rapidly; the system of taxation 
was remodelled, a new customs tariff put in operation, 
and the Cuban coasting trade opened to American vessels. 
The disbandment of the Cuban army was also effected, 
after some delay and opposition, $3,000,000 having been 
appropriated by the United States for the payment of the 
troops. Save for occasional outbreaks of disorder in 
different parts of the island, peace and quiet in general 
prevailed. The cleaning of the cities, especially Havana 
and Santiago, operated greatly to reduce the amount of 
yellow fever. The appointment, in December, of Major- 
General Leonard Wood to succeed General Brooke as 
governor-general, was followed by further legal and 
administrative reforms, and the introduction of a public- 
school system on the American model. 

903. Porto Rico. — Porto Rico passed formally under the 
control of the United States October 18, 1898, and 
General Brooke was appointed governor-general. A 
customs tariff, in which no preference was given to Ameri- 
can goods, had already been drawn up, at the direction 
of the War Department. Under General Guy V. Henry, 



1900] 



PORTO RICO 



523 



who succcctled General l^rooke in December, the jiohcy 
of giving the Porto Ricans as large representation as 
possible in official appointments was followed, and 
numercnis administrative and legal reforms were inaugu- 
rated. An Insular Commission, appointed by the Presi- 
dent to investigate affairs in the island, reported in 



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Porto Rico. 

August, 1899, recommending various reforms, and sub- 
mitting a draft of a code of laws. A reorganization of the 
civil government, in the interest of simplicity and economy, 
was effected b\' General George W. Davis, who had 
succeeded General Henry in April. A hurricane which 
swept over the island in August caused great destruction 
of propert)', including the fruit and coffee plantations, 
killed more than 2600 people, and left 250,000 persons 
destitute. A call for aid met with cjuick response in the 
United States. In April, 1900, Congress established a 
form of government for Porto Rico. The act provided 
for a governor and council — one half of the latter to be 
Porto Ricans — appointed b\^ the President, and an elected 
House of Delegates. Most of the laws of the United 



524 EXPANSION [1900 

States, so far as applicable, were extended to the island, 
and the United States was to be represented b}' a resident 
commissioner. Mr. Charles H. Allen, of Massachusetts, 
Assistant Secretary of the Navy, was appointed the first 
governor. 

904. The Porto Rican Tariff. — To meet the expenses of 
the civil government, the Porto Rican act of April 12 
further provided for the imposition of tariff duties, on 
commerce between Porto Rico and the United States, of 
fifteen per cent, of existing rates. This provision was to 
be in force for two years. The discussion of this portion 
of the act attracted the attention of the whole country. 
In his message of December, 1899, President McKinley 
had declared it to be "our plain duty" to "abolish all 
customs tariffs between the United States and Porto 
Rico ' ' ; and the bill as first drawn provided for free trade 
between the two regions. Strong opposition was im- 
mediately manifested by friends of protected industries, 
on the ground not only of danger to American interests, 
but of the dangerous precedent which such action would 
establish for later treatment of the Philippines. A 
proposition which the President, notwithstanding his 
previous declaration, was now known to favor, fixing the 
tariff rates at twenty-five per cent, of existing rates, on the 
ground that the revenue was needed in the island, was 
vigorously opposed by the Democrats and by a small but 
influential group of Republicans, popularly known as 
"insurgents." Aside from the constitutional argument, 
which was elaborated at great length, the opponents of the 
measure insisted that it would violate good faith with 
Porto Rico, and would be interpreted as a surrender to 
the demands of protected interests in the United States. 
To conciliate the "insurgents," the proportionate rates 
were reduced to fifteen per cent., and the operation of the 



iQOo] EXPANSION AND IMPERIALISM 525 

provision limited to two years. The final vote in each 
House was close, being 40 to 31 in the Senate, and 161 
to 153 in the House of Representatives. As a further 
concession. Congress, on the recommendation of the 
President, had already passed an act appropriating to the 
immediate needs of the island "all money collected or to 
be collected as duties on products of Porto Rico in the 
ports of the United States." 

905. Expansion and Imperialism. — The decision of the 
President to retain the Philippines at the close of the war 
with Spain, together with the failure to give any assurance 
of ultimate independence to the conquered territories, 
precipitated a general and absorbing discussion of the 
policy which the course of the Administration seemed to 
favor. On the side of " expansion " were arrayed not 
only many radical politicians, \\'ho wished the United 
States to adopt "an aggressive foreign polic}', " and take 
an active part in " world politics, " but many conservative 
leaders as well, who argued that circumstances had com- 
pelled us to take charge of the territory won from Spain, 
and that the new responsibilities, however unwelcome, 
could not be evaded. On the other hand, the opponents 
of expansion, or the anti-imperialists, as they were gen- 
erally called, denied the necessity or propriet}' of exercising 
anything more than a temporary protectorate over the 
Philippines, and insisted that the United States ought 
plainly to declare its purpose to give the people of the 
islands their independence. They further urged that 
nothing but danger could attend a departure from the 
historic policy of the United States in its international 
relations, pointed out the unfitness of our form of govern- 
ment for the administration of colonies and dependencies, 
and cited the increased military and naval expenses as the 
logical accompaniments of an im[)erialistic programme. 



526 EXPANSION [1900 

The discussion, everywhere earnest, and in reaHty involv- 
ing' the whole question of the future of the United States, 
was embittered by extreme acts and expressions on both 
sides; while the failure of President McKinley to take a 
definite stand exposed him to the charge of weakness and 
vacillation, and of followinij rather than leading public 
opinion. 

906. The Election of 1900. — The presidential cam- 
paign of 1900 seemed certain to turn mainly on the 
question of expansion, to which policy the Republican 
party was regarded as committed. The selection of the 
principal candidates for President was long foreseen. The 
announcement of the candidacy of Admiral Dewey failed 
to meet with popular approval, and the candidate shortly 
withdrew. The Republican national convention met at 
Philadelphia in June, and renominated President McKin- 
ley, with Theodore Roosevelt, governor of New York, as 
the candidate for Vice-President. The platform indorsed 
the McKinley administration, declared allegiance to pro- 
tection and the gold standard, approved the annexation 
of Hawaii, and called for the construction and control of 
an isthmian canal by the United States. The policy of 
the Administration " in maintaining the efficiency of the 
civil service" was commended. In regard to the new 
possessions, the platform accepted the responsibilities fol- 
lowing from the war with Spain, promised to the people 
of the acquired territory "the largest measure of self- 
government consistent with their welfare and our duties," 
and pledged indejiendence and self-government to Cuba. 
The Democratic convention at Kansas City, in July, 
nominated William J. Bryan, of Nebraska (^ 865), for 
President, and Adlai E. Stevenson, of Illinois (§ 854), 
for Vice-President. The platform declared against im- 
perialism, but not against territorial expansion "when it 



1897-8] LEADING Hl/ENTS 527 

takes in desirable territor}- which can be erected into 
States in the Union, and whose people are willing and fit 
to become American citizens "; denounced the policy of 
the Republican Administration in the Philippines; and 
reaffirmed the principles of the Chicago platform of 1896, 
including the free coinage of silver at the ratio of 16 to i. 
The Democratic candidates were indorsed by the silver 
Republicans and the Populists. The Republican candi- 
dates received 292 electoral votes out of a total of 

447- 

907. The Leading Events of President McKinley's ad- 
ministration were as follows: 

1897-1901 : President IMcKinley's Term of Oflice § 869 

1897 : Anti-Trust decision 891 

Monetary commission a{)})ointetl.. . 872 

Arbitration treaty rejected 867 

Senate recognition of Cuban bel- 
ligerency 873 

Nicaragua canal commission aj)- 

pointed 895 

Dingley tariff 870 

Order extending the classified ser- 
vice 892 

Klondike gold excitement 893 

Spain decrees autonomy for Cuba 

and Porto Rico 874 

Sale of Union Pacific Railway 890 

1898: IVIonetary conference at Indian- 
apolis 889 

Sale of Kansas Pacific Railway. . . . 890 

De Lome letter 876 

Loss of the Mdtfie 877 

President INIcKinley offers media- 
tion between Spain and the 

Cubans 878 

$50,000,000 appro})riated for the 

national defence 879 

Armistice in Cuba proclaimed by 

Spain 878 



52 8 EXPANSION [1898-9 

1898: McKinley's war message § 878 

Blockade of Cuba 882 

Call for 125,000 volunteers 880 

Declaration of war against Spain.. . 879 

Battle of Manila Bay 881 

Cervera blockaded at Santiago. . . . 882 

Anglo-American commission 887 

Landing of American force at Dai- 
quiri 882 

La Quasima taken by Americans. . 882 
Guantanamo taken by Americans 

and Cubans 884 

War revenue act 886 

San Juan and Caney taken by 

Americans 882 

Cervera's fleet destroyed 882 

Surrender of Santiago 882 

Occupation of Porto Rico by 

Americans 883 

Russian peace proposals 897 

Peace preliminaries signed 885 

Hawaii annexed 888 

Manila taken by Americans 881 

Porto Rico transferred to the 

United States 903 

Treaty of peace 885 

Secretary Gage's report on cur- 
rency reform 889 

1899: Cuba transferred to control of the 

United States 902 

First Philippine commission ap- 
pointed 900 

Treaty of peace ratified by the 

Senate 885 

Gen. Geo. W. Davis appointed 

governor of Porto Rico 903 

Report of the Nicaragua canal com- 
mission 895 

Peace conference at The Hague. . . 897 
New Nicaragua canal commission 

appointed 895 

Order removing places from the 

classified service 892 



1899, 1900] SUPPLHMHNT^RY READING 5^9 

1899: Rejnirt of the Porto Rico insular 

commission § 903 

War Department investigation. . . . 898 

Samoan settlement 894 

Gen. Leonard Wood appointed 

governor of Cuba 902 

President McKinley recommends 

free trade with Porto Rico 904 

1900: Proposed abrogation of Clayton- 

Bulwer treaty 896 

Hague arbitration proposals ratified 

by the Senate . 897 

Report on the War Department in- 
vestigation 898 

Report of the Philippine commis- 
sion 901 

Second Philippine commission ap- 
pointed 901 

Act establishing the gold standard . 889 
Act appropriating customs revenues 

to Porto Rico 904 

Porto Rico government act 903 

Hawaiian government act 888 

The election of 1900 906 

Topics for Further Study. 

1. The Philippines under Spanish rule. 

2. Military and naval reorganization, 1 897-1 900. 

3. The Clayton-Bulwer treaty. 

4. English colonial administration. 

5. Trusts. 

Supplementary Reading, 

Aside from the official publications of the government, and 
the daily proceedings of Congress, light on our newest history 
must be sought chiefly in newspapers and periodicals. The 
leading magazines, during 1898-99, discussed almost every 
phase of the war with Spain, and published numerous articles 
by prominent participants. 



APPENDIX I 

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 

In Congress, July 4, 1776. 

A DECLARATION BY THE REPRESENTATIVES OF THE 
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, IN CONGRESS AS- 
SEMBLED. 

When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for 
one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected 
them with another, and to assume, among the powers of the earth, 
the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of 
nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of man- 
kind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them 
to the separation. 

We hold these truths to be self-evident : — That all men are created 
equal ; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalien- 
able rights ; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of 
happiness. That, to secure these rights, governments are instituted 
among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the gov- 
erned ; that, whenever any form of government becomes destructive 
of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, 
and to institute a new government, laying its foundation on such 
principles, and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall 
seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, in- 
deed, will dictate, that governments long established should not be 
changed for light and transient causes ; and accordingly all experi- 
ence hath shown that mankind are more disposed to suffer while 
evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms 
to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses 
and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object, evinces a de- 
sign to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their right, it is 
their duty, to throw off such government, and to provide new guards 
for their future security. Such has been the patient sufferance of 
these colonies ; and such is now the necessity which constrains 
them to alter their former systems of government. The history of 
the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries 
and usur])ations, all having in direct object the establishment of an 

531 



532 APPENDIX I 

absolute tyranny over these states. To prove this, let facts he sub- 
mitted to a candid world. 

He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and neces- 
sary for the public good. 

He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and 
pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his 
assent should be obtained ; and when so suspended, he has utterly 
neglected to attend to them. 

He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large 
districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of 
representation in the legislature — a right inestimable to them, and 
formidable to tyrants only. 

He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, un- 
comfortable, and distant from the depository of their public records, 
for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his 
measures. 

He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing, 
wiXh. manly tirmness, his invasions on the rights of the people. 

He has refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to cause 
others to be elected, whereby the legislative powers, incapable of 
annihilation, have returned to the people at large for their exercise ; 
the State remaining, in the mean time, exposed to all the dangers ot 
invasions from without, and convulsions within. 

He has endeavored to prevent the population of these States ; for 
that purpose obstructing the laws for the naturalization of foreign- 
ers ; refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, 
and raising the conditions of new appropriations of lands. 

He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing his 
assent to laws for establishing judiciary powers. 

He has made judges dependent on his will alone for the tenure 
of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. 

He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms 
of officers to harass our people and eat out their substance. 

He has kept among us in times of peace, standing armies, with- 
out the consent -of our Legislatures. 

He has affected to render the military independent of, and supe- 
rior to, the civil power. 

He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction for- 
eign to our constitutions, and unacknowledged by our laws ; giving 
his assent to their acts of pretended legislation : 

For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us ; 

For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any 
murders which they should commit on the inhabitants of these 
States ; 

For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world ; 

For imposing taxes on us without our consent ; 

P^or depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury ; 



DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 533 

For transportino- us beyond seas, to he tried tnr jiretended of- 
fences ; 

For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring 
province, establishing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarg- 
ing its boundaries, 'so as to render it at once an example and fit in- 
strument for introducing the same absolute rule into these colonies ; 

For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, 
and altering, fundamentally, the forms of our governments ; 

For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves 
invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. 

He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of his 
protection, and waging war against us. 

He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burned our towns, 
and destroyed the lives of our people. 

He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries 
to complete the works of death, desolation, and tyranny, already 
begun with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralleled 
in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the head of a civi- 
lized nation. 

He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the high 
seas, to bear arms against their country, to become the executioners 
of their friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands. 

He has excited domestic insurrection among us, and has endeav- 
ored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless In- 
dian savages, whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished 
destruction of all ages, sexes, and conditions. 

In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for redress 
in the most humble terms ; our repeated petitions have been an- 
swered only by repeated injury. A prince whose character is thus 
marked by every act which may define a tyrant, is unfit to be the 
ruler of a free people. 

Nor have we been wanting in our attentions to our British breth- 
ren. We have warned them, from time to time, of attempts by their, 
legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We 
have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and set- 
tlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and mag- 
nanimity ; and we have conjured them, by the ties of our common 
kindred, to disavow these usurpations, which would mevitably inter- 
rupt our connections and correspondence. They, too, have been 
deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, there- 
fore, acquiesce in the necessity which denounces our separation, 
and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, enemies in war, in 
peace friends. 

We, therefore, the Representatives of the United States of Amer- 
ica, in General Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge 
of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name and 
by the authority of the good people of these colonies solemnly pub- 



534 



APPENDIX I 



lish and declare, That tliese united colonies, are, and of right ought 
to be, free and independent states ; that they are absolved from all 
allegiance to the British crown, and that all political connection be- 
tween them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, 
totally dissolved ; and that, as free and independent states, they have 
full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish 
commerce, and to do all other acts and things which independent 
states may of right do. And, for the support of this declaration, 
with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, we 
mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our 
sacred honor. 

The foregoing Declaration was, by order of Congress, engrossed, 
and signed by the following members : — 



NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

Josiah Bartlett, 
William Whipple, 
Matthew Thornton. 

MASSACHUSETTS BAY, 

Samuel Adams, 
John Adams, 
Robert Treat Paine, 
Elbridge Gerry. 

RHODE ISLAND. 
Stephen Hopkins, 
William Ellery. 

CONNECTICUT. 
Roger Sherman, 
Samuel Huntington, 
William Williams, 
Oliver Wolcott. 

NEW YORK. 

William Floyd, 
Philip Livingston, 
Francis Lewis, 
Lewis Morris. 



JOHN HANCOCK. 

NEW JERSEY. 

Richard Stockton, 
John Witherspoon, 
Francis Hopkinson, 
John Hart, 
Abraham Clark. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 
Robert Morris, 
Benjamin Rush, 
Benjamin Franklin, 
John Morton, 
George Clymer, 
James Smith, 
George Taylor, 
James Wilson, 
George Rk)ss. 

DELAWARE. 

Ccesar Rodney, 
George Read, 
Thomas M'Kean. 

MARYLAND. 

Samuel Chase, 
William Paca, 
Thomas Stone, 



Resolved, That copies of the Declaration 
assemblies, conventions, and committees, or 
to the several commanding officers of the con 
be proclaimed in each of the United States, 
army. 



Charles Carroll, of Car- 
rollton. 

VIRGINIA. 

George Wythe, 
Richard Henry Lee, 
Thomas Jefferson, 
Benjamin Harrison, 
Thomas Nelson, Jr., 
Francis Lightfoot Lee, 
Carter Braxton. 

NORTH CAROLINA. 

William Hooper, 
Joseph Hewes, 
John Penn. 

SOUTH CAROLINA. 

Edward Rutledge, 
Thomas Heyward, Jr., 
Thomas Lynch, Jr., 

Arthur Middleton. 

GEORGIA. 

Button Gwinnett, 
Lyman Hall, 
George Walton. 

be sent to the several 
councils of safety, and 
tinental troops ; that it 
and at the head of the 



APPENDIX II 

ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION 

ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION AND PERPETUAL UNION 
BETWEEN THE STATES OF NEW HAMPSHIRE, MAS- 
SACHUSETTS BAY, RHODE ISLAND AND PROVI- 
DENCE PLANTATIONS, CONNECTICUT, NEW YORK, 
NEW JERSEY, PENNSYLVANIA, DELAWARE, MARY- 
LAND, VIRGINIA, NORTH CAROLINA, SOUTH CARO- 
LINA, AND GEORGIA. 

Article I. — The style of this Confederacy shall be, "The United 
States of America." 

Article II. — Each State retains its sovereignty, freedom, and 
independence, and every power, jurisdiction, and right, which is not 
l)y this Confederation expressly delegated to the United States in 
Congress assembled. 

Article III. — The said States hereby severally enter into a firm 
league of friendship with each other, for their common defence, the 
security of their liberties, and their mutual and general welfare, 
binding themselves to assist each other against all force offered to 
or attacks made upon them, or any of them, on account of religion, 
sovereignty, trade, or any other pretence whatever. 

Article IV. — The better to secure and perpetuate mutual friend- 
ship and intercourse among the people of the different States in this 
Union, the free inhabitants of each of these States, paupers, vaga- 
bonds, and fugitives from justice excepted, shall be entitled to all 
privileges and immunities of free citizens in the several States ; and 
the people of each State shall have free ingress and regress to and 
from any other State, and shall enjoy therein all the privileges of 
trade and commerce subject to the same duties, impositions, and re- 
strictions as the inhabitants thereof respectively ; provided that such 
restrictions shall not extend so far as to prevent the removal ot 
property imported into any State to any other State of which the 
owner is an inhabitant ; provided also, that no imposition, duties, 
or restriction shall be laid by any State on the property of the 
United States or either of them. If any person guilty of, or charged 
with, treason, felony, or other high misdemeanor in any State shall 

535 



53^ APPENDIX II 

flee from justice and be found in any of tlie United States, he shall, 
upon demand of the governor or executive power of the State from 
which he fled, be delivered up and removed to the State having 
jurisdiction of his offence. Full faith and credit shall be given in 
each of these States to the records, acts, and judicial proceedings 
of the courts and magistrates of every other State. 

Article V. — For the more convenient management of the gen- 
eral interests of the United States, delegates shall be annually ap- 
pointed in such manner as the Legislature of each State shall direct, 
to meet in Congress on the first Monday in November, in every 
year, with a power reserved to each State to recall its delegates, or 
any of them, at any time within the year, and to send others in their 
stead for the remainder of the year. No State shall be represented 
in Congress by less than two, nor by more than seven members ; 
and no person shall be capable of being a delegate for more than 
three years in any term of six years ; nor shall any person, being a 
delegate, be capable of holding any office under the United States 
for which he, or another for his benefit, receives any salary, fees, or 
emolument of any kind. Each State shall maintain its own dele- 
gates in any meeting of the States and while they act as members 
of the Committee of the States. In determining questions in the 
United States in Congress assembled, each State shall have one 
vote. Freedom of speech and debat-e in Congress shall not be im- 
peached or ciuestioned in any court or place out of Congress ; and 
the members of Congress shall be protected in their persons from 
arrest and imprisonment during the time of their going to and from, 
and attendance on. Congress, except for treason, felony, or breach 
of the peace. 

Article VI. — No State, without the consent of the United States, 
in Congress assembled, shall send any embassy to, or receive any 
embassy from, or enter into any conference, agreement, alliance, or 
treaty with any king, prince, or state ; nor shall any person holding 
any office of profit or trust under the United States, or any of them, 
accept of any present, emolument, office, or title of any kind what- 
ever from any king, prince, or foreign state ; nor shall the United 
States, in Congress assembled, or any of them, grant any title of 
nobility. 

No two or more States shall enter into any treaty, confederation, 
or alliance whatever between them, without the consent of the 
United States, in Congress assembled, specifying accurately the 
purposes for which the same is to be entered into, and how long it 
shall continue. 

No State shall lay any imposts or duties which may interfere with 
any stipulations in treaties entered into by the United States, in 
Congress assembled, with any king, prince, or state, in pursuance 
of any treaties already proposed by Congress to the courts of France 
and Spain. 



ylRTlCI.FS OF CONFEDERATION 537 

No vessels of war shall be kept up in time of peace by any State, 
except such number only as shall be deemed necessary by the 
United States, in Congress assembled, for the defence of such State 
or its trade, nor shall any body of forces be kept up by any State in 
time of peace, except such number only as, in the judgment of tlie 
United States, in Congress assembled, shall be deemed requisite to 
garrison the forts necessary for the defence of such State ; but every 
State shall always keep up a well-regulated and disciplined militia, 
sufficiently armed and accoutred, and shall provide and constantly 
have ready for use in public stores a due number of field-pieces and 
tents, and a proper quantity of arms, ammunition, and camp equipage. 

No State shall engage in any war without the consent of the 
United States, in Congress assembled, unless such State be actually 
invaded by enemies, or shall have received certain advice of a 
resolution being formed by some nation of Indians to invade such 
State, and the danger is so imminent as not to admit of a delay till 
the United States, in Congress assembled, can be consulted ; nor 
shall any State grant commissions to any ships or vessels of war, nor 
letters of marque or reprisal, except it be after a declaration of war 
by the United States, in Congress assembled, and then only against 
the kingdom or state, and the subjects thereof, against which war 
has been so declared, and under such regulations as shall be estab- 
lished by the United States, in Congress assembled, unless such 
State be infested by pirates, in which case vessels of war may be 
fitted out for that occasion, and kept so long as the danger shall 
continue, or until the United States, in Congress assembled, shall 
determine otherwise. 

Article VII. — When land forces are raised by any State for the 
common defence, all officers of or under the rank of Colonel shall 
be appointed by the Legislature of each State respectively by whom 
such forces shall be raised, or in such manner as such State shall 
direct, and all vacancies shall be filled up by the State which first 
made the appointment. 

Article VIII. — All charges of war, and all other expenses that 
shall be incurred for the common defence or general welfare, and 
allowed by the United States, in Congress assembled, shall be de- 
frayed out of a common treasury, which shall be supplied by the 
several States in proportion to the value of land within each State, 
granted to or surveyed for, any person, as such land and the build- 
ings and improvements thereon shall be estimated, according to 
such mode as the United States, in Congress assembled, shall, from 
time to time, direct and appoint. The taxes for paying that propor- 
tion shall be laid and levied by the authority and direction of the 
Legislatures of the several States within the time agreed upon by 
the United States, in Congress assembled. 

Article IX. — The United States, in Congress asseml)kd, shall 
have the sole and exclusive right and power of determining on peace 



538 APPENDIX II 

and war, except in the cases mentioned in the sixth Article ; of send- 
ing and receiving ambassadors ; entering into treaties and alliances, 
provided that no treaty of commerce shall be made, whereby the 
legislative power of the respective States shall be restrained from 
imposing such imposts and duties on foreigners as their own people 
are subjected to, or from prohibiting the exportation or importation 
of any species of goods or commodities whatever ; of establishing 
rules for deciding, in all cases, what captures on land and water 
shall be legal, and in what manner prizes taken by land or naval 
forces in the service of the United States shall be divided or appro- 
priated ; of granting letters of marque and reprisal in times of 
peace ; appointing courts for the trial of piracies and felonies com- 
mitted on the high seas ; and establishing courts for receiving and 
determining finally appeals in all cases of captures ; provided that 
no member of Congress shall be appointed a judge of any of the 
said courts. 

The United States, in Congress assembled, shall also be the last 
resort on appeal in all disputes and differences now subsisting, or 
that hereafter may arise between two or more States concerning 
boundary, jurisdiction, or any other cause whatever ; which au- 
thority shall always be exercised in the manner following : When- 
ever the legislative or executive authority, or lawful agent of any 
State in controversy with another, shall present a petition to Con- 
gress, stating the matter in cjuestion, and praying for a hearing, 
notice thereof shall be given by order of Congress to the legislative 
or executive authority of the other State in controversy, and a day 
assigned for the appearance of the parties by their lawful agents, 
who shall then be directed to appoint, by joint consent, commis- 
sioners or judges to constitute a court for hearing and determining 
the matter in question ; but if they cannot agree. Congress shall 
name three persons out of each of the United States, and from the 
list of such persons each party shall alternately strike out one, the 
petitioners beginning, until the number shall be reduced to thirteen ; 
and from that number not less than seven nor more than nine 
names, as Congress shall direct, shall, in the presence of Congress, 
be drawn out by lot ; and the persons whose names shall be so 
drawn, or any five of them, shall be commissioners or judges, to 
hear and finally determine the controversy, so always as a major 
part of the judges who shall hear the cause shall agree in the deter- 
mination ; and if either party shall neglect to attend at the day ap- 
pointed, without showing reasons which Congress shall judge suffi- 
cient, or being present, shall refuse to strike, the Congress shall 
proceed to nominate three persons out of each State, and the secre- 
tary of Congress shall strike in behalf of such party absent or 
refusing ; and the judgment and sentence of the court, to be ap- 
pointed in the manner before prescrilied, shall be final and con- 
clusive ; and if any of the parties shall refuse to submit to the 



ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION 539 

authority of such court, or to appear or defend their claim or cause, 
the court shall nevertheless proceed to pronounce sentence or judg- 
ment, which shall in like manner be linal and decisive ; the judg-- 
ment or sentence and other proceedings being in either case trans- 
mitted to Congress, and lodged among the acts of Congress for the 
security of the parties concerned ; provided, that every commissioner, 
before he sits in judgment, shall take an oath, to be administered 
by one of the judges of the supreme or superior court of the State 
where the cause shall be tried, " well and truly to hear and deter- 
mine the matter in question, according to the best of his judgment, 
without favor, affection, or hope of reward." Provided, also, that 
no State shall be deprived of territory for the benefit of the United 
States. 

All controversies concerning the private right of soil claimed 
under different grants of two or more States, whose jurisdictions, 
as they may respect such lands and the State which passed such 
grants are adjusted, the said grants or either of them being at the 
same time claimed ta have originated antecedent to such settlement 
of jurisdiction, shall, on the petition of either party to the Congress 
of the United States, be finally determined, as near as may be, in 
the same manner as is before prescribed for deciding disputes re- 
specting territorial jurisdiction between different States. 

The United States, in Congress assembled, shall also have the 
sole and conclusive right and power of regulating the alloy and 
value of coin struck by their own authority, or by that of the re- 
spective States ; fixing the standard of weights and measures 
throughout the United States ; regulating the trade and managing 
all affairs with the Indians, not members of any of the States ; pro- 
vided that the legislative right of any State, within its own limits, 
be not infringed or violated ; establishing and regulating post offices 
from one State to another, throughout all the United States, and 
exacting such postage on the papers passing through the same as 
may be requisite to defray the expenses of the said office ; appoint- 
ing all officers of the land forces in the service of the United 
States, excepting regimental officers ; appointing all the officers of 
the naval forces, and commissioning all officers whatever in the 
service of the United States ; making rules for the government and 
regulation of the said land and naval forces, and directing their 
operations. 

The United States, in Congress assembled, shall have authority 
tc^ appoint a committee, to sit in the recess of Congress, to be de- 
nominated, " A Committee of the States," and to consist of one 
delegate from each State, and to appoint such other committees and 
civil officers as may be necessary for managing the general affairs of 
the United States under their direction ; to appoint one of their 
number to preside ; provided that no person be allowed to serve in 
the office of president more than one year in any term of three years ; 



S4<5 APPENDIX li 

to ascertain the necessary sums of money to be raised for the service 
of the United States, and to appropriate and apply the same for de- 
fraying the public expenses ; to borrow money or emit bills on the 
credit of the United States, transmitting every half year to the 
respective States an account of the sums of money so borrowed or 
emitted ; to build and equip a navy ; to agree upon the number ot 
land forces, and to make requisitions from each State for its quota, 
in proportion to the number of white inhabitants in such State, 
which reqiiisition shall be binding ; and thereupon the Legislature 
of each State shall appoint the regimental officers, raise the men, 
and clothe, arm, and equip them in a soldier-like manner, at the 
expense oi the United States ; and the ofificers and men so clothed, 
armed, and equipped, shall march to the place appointed, and 
within the time agreed on by the United States, in Congress assem- 
bled ; but if the United States, in Congress assembled, shall, on 
consideration of circumstances, judge proper that any State should 
not raise men, or should raise a smaller number than 'ts quota, and 
that any other State should raise a greater number of men than the 
quota thereof, such extra number shall be raised, officered, clothed, 
armed, and equipped in the same manner as the quota of such 
State, unless the Legislature of such State shall judge that such 
extra number can not be safely spared out of the same, in which 
case they shall raise, officer, clothe, arm, and equip as many of such 
extra number as they judge can be safely spared, and the officers 
and men so clothed, armed, and equipped shall march to the place 
appointed, and within the time agreed on by the United States, in 
Congress assembled. 

The United States, in Congress assembled, shall never engage in 
war, nor grant letters of marque and reprisal in time of peace, nor 
enter into any treaties or alliances, nor coin money, nor regulate the 
value thereof, nor ascertain the sums and expenses necessary for the 
defefise and welfare of the United States, or any of them, nor emit 
bills, nor borrow money on the credit of the United States, nor ap- 
propriate money, nor agree upon the number of vessels of war to 
be built or purchased, or the number of land or sea forces to be 
raised, nor appoint a commander-in-chief of the army or navy, 
unless nine States assent to the same, nor shall a question on any 
other point, except for adjourning from day to day, be determined, 
unless by the votes of a majority of the United States, in Congress 
assembled. 

The Congress of the United States shall have power to adjourn 
to any time within the year, and to any place within the United 
States, so that no period of adjournment be for a longer duration 
than the space of six months, and shall publish the journal of their 
proceedings monthly, except such parts thereof relating to treaties, 
alliances, or military operations as in their judgment require 
secrecy ; and the yeas and nays of the delegates of each State, on 



ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION 54" 

any question, shall be entered on the journal when it is desired by 
any delegate ; and the delegates of a State, or any of them, at his 
or their request, shall be furnished with a transcript of the said 
journal, except such parts as are above excepted, to lay tjefore the 
Legislatures of the several States. 

Article X. — The Committee of the States, or any nine of them, 
shall be authorized to execute, in the recess of Congress, such of 
the powers of Congress as the United States, in Congress assem- 
bled, by the consent of nine States, shall, from time to time, think 
expedient to vest them with ; provided that no power be delegated 
to the said Committee, for the exercise of which, by the Articles of 
Confederation, the voice of nine States in the Congress of the 
United States as assembled is requisite. 

Article XI. — Canada, acceding to this Confederation, and join- 
ing in the measures of the United States, shall be admitted into, 
and entitled to, all the advantages of this Union ; but no other 
colony shall be admitted into the same, unless such admission be 
agreed to by nine States. 

Article XII. — All bills of credit emitted, moneys borrowed, and 
debts contracted by or under the authority of Congress, before the 
assembling of the United States, in pursuance of the present Con- 
federation, shall be deemed and considered as a charge against 
the United States, for payment and satisfaction whereof the 
said United States and the public faith are hereby solemnly 
pledged. 

Article XIII. — Every State shall abide by the determination of 
the United States, in Congress assembled, on all questions which by 
this Confederation are submitted to them. And the Articles of 
this Confederation shall be inviolably observed by every State, and 
the Union shall be perpetual ; nor shall any alteration at any time 
hereafter be made in any of them, unless such alteration be agreed 
to in a Congress of the United States, and be afterwards confirmed 
by the Legislatures of every State. 

And whereas it hath pleased the great Governor of the world 
to incline the hearts of the Legislatures we respectively represent 
in Congress to approve of, and to authorize us to ratify, the said 
Articles of Confederation and perpetual Union, know ye, that we, 
the undersigned delegates, by virtue of the power and authority to 
us given for that purpose, do, by these presents, in the name and 
in behalf of our respective constituents, fully and entirely ratify and 
confirm each and every of the said Articles of Confederation and 
perpetual Union, and all and singular the matters and things con- 
tained. And we do further solemnly plight and engage the faith 
of our respective constituents, that they shall abide by the determi- 
nations of the United States, in Congress assembled, on all ques- 
tions which by the said Confederation are submitted to them ; and 
that the Articles thereof shall be inviolably observed by the States 



542 /fPPENDIX II 

we respectively represent, and that the Union shall be perpetual. 
In witness whereof, we have hereunto set our hands in Congress. 
Done at Philadelphia, in the State of Pennsylvania, the ninth day ot 
July, in the year of our Lord 1778, and in the third year of the 
Independence of America. 



APPENDIX III 

CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 
PREAMBLE 

WE, the people of the United States, in order to form a more 
perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide 
for the common defence, promote the general welfare, and secure 
the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and 
establish this Constitution for the United States of America. 

ARTICLE I. 

Section I. i. All legislative powers herein granted shall be 
vested in a Congress ' of the United States, which shall Legislative 
consist of a senate and house of representatives. powers. 

Sec. II. I. The house of representatives shall be composed of 
members chosen every second year, by the people of „ , 

1 1 1 1 1 • 1 1 11 House of 

the several states ; and the electors m each state shall representa- 
have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most ''^^^• 
numerous branch of the state legislature. 

2. No person shall be a representative who shall not have at- 
tained to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven ^ ..^ .• 

°ri TT-ir- 1 1 111 Oualincations 

years a citizen oi the United States, and who shall not, of representa- 
when elected, be an inhabitant of that state in which "^'^^• 
he shall be chosen. 

3. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among 
the several states which may be included within this Union, accord- 
ing to their respective numbers," which shall be deter- , 

• 1 1 11- 1 11 1 ,- ,- Apportionment 

mined by adding to the whole number of free persons, of representa- 
including those bound to service for a term of years, "^'^^• 
and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other persons.' 
The actual enumeration shall be made within three years after 
the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within 
every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall 

• The body of senators and representatives for each term of two years for which repre- 
sentatives are chosen is called one Congress. Each Congress expires at noon of the 4th of 
March next succeeding the beginning of its second regular session, when a new Congress 
begins. 

^ The apportionment under the census of 1890 is one representative to every 173,901 
persons. 

3 This refers to slaves, and is iio longer in force (see Amendment XIII.). 



/ 



543 



544 APPENDIX in 

by law direct. The number of representatives shall not exceed 
one for every thirty thousand, but each state shall have at least one 
representative ; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State 
of New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three ; Massachusetts, 
eight ; Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, one ; Connecticut, 
live ; New York, six ; New Jersey, four ; Pennsylvania, eight ; Del- 
aware, one ; Maryland, six ; Virginia, ten ; North Carolina, five ; 
South Carolina, five ; and Georgia, three. 

4. When vacancies happen in the representation 
from any state, the executive authority thereof shall 
issue writs of election to fill such vacancies. 

Officers, how 5- The house of representatives shall choose their 

appointed. Speaker and other officers,* and shall have the sole 

power of impeachment. 

Sec. III. I. The senate of the United States shall be composed of 
two senators from each state, chosen by the legis- 
lature thereof, for six years ; and each senator shall 
have one vote. 

2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of 

the first election, they shall be divided, as equally as 
o/senators°" "^'^y ^^' '"^^ three classes. The seats of the senators 

of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of 
the second year ; of the second class, at the expiration of the fourth 
year ; and of the third class, at the expiration of the sixth year, so 
that one third may be chosen every second year ; and if vacancies 
happen, by resignation or otherwise, during the recess of the legis- 
lature of any state, the executive thereof may make temporary ap- 
pointments until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall 
then fill such vacancies. 

3. No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to 
Qualifications the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of 
of senators. the United States ; and who shall not, when elected, be 
an inhabitant of that state for which he shall be chosen. 

President of 4- The vicc-president of the United States shall be 

the senate. president of the senate ; but shall have no vote, unless 

they be equally divided. 

5. The senate shall choose their other officers,^ and also a presi- 
dent pro tempore, in the absence of the vice-president, or when he 
shall exercise the office of president of the United States. 

6. The senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. 

When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or 
Senate a court affirmation. When the president of the United States 

for trial of im- • * • 1 ^u i • r • •■ u 11 • 1 1 

peachments. 's tried, the chiei justice shall preside ; and no person 
shall be convicted without the concurrence of two thirds 
of the members present. 

' Clerk, sergeant-at-arms, door-keeper, postmaster and others. The Speaker is thq 
presiding officer. 
' Secretary, sergeant-at-arms, door-keeper, postmaster and others. 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 545 

7. Judgment, in case of impeachment, shall not extend further 
than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold judgment in 
and enjoy any office of honor, trust, or profit, under caseofcon- 
the United States ; but the party convicted shall, ^'"="°"- 
nevertheless, be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment, 
and punishment, according to law. 

Sec. IV. I. The times, places, and manner of holding elections 
for senators and representatives, shall be prescribed in ^ 

each state by the legislature thereof; but the Congress senTtorrand 
may, at any time, by law, make or alter such regula- of represen- 
tions, except as to the places of choosing senators. 

2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year ; and 
such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, jMeeting of 
unless they shall by law appoint a different day. Congress. 

Sec. V. I. Each house shall be the judge of the elections, re- 
turns, and qualifications of its own members ; and a organization 
majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do busi- of Congress, 
ness ; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and 
may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members, in 
such manner and under such penalties as each house may provide. 

2. Each house may determine the rules of its pro- Rule of pro- 
ceedings, punish its members for disorderly behavior, ceeding. 
and, with the concurrence of two thirds, expel a member. 

3. Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from 
time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as journal of 
may, in their judgment, require secrecy ; and the yeas Congress. 
and nays of the members of either house, on any question, shall, at 
the desire of one fifth of those present, be entered on the journal. 

4. Neither house, during the session of Congress, 

shall, without the consent of the other, adjourn for more Adjournment 

11 1 1 1 1 1 • °' Congress. 

than three days, nor to any other place than that in 
which the two houses shall be sitting. 

Sec. VI. I. The senators and representatives shall receive a 
compensation' for their services, to be ascertained by „ , . . 

1 1 -1 ri /-iTT-io "3y sno privi- 

law, and paid out of the treasury 01 the United States, leges of mem- 
They shall, in all cases, except treason, felony, and ^^''^• 
breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their attend- 
ance at the session of their respective houses, and in going to and 
returning from the same ; and for any speech or debate in either 
house they shall not be questioned in any other place. 

2. No senator or representative shall, during the time for which 
he was elected, be appointed to any civil office, under „, 

^ Plurality of 

the authority of the United States, which shall have offices pro- 
been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have hibited. 
been increased, during such time ; and no person holding any office 

' The present compensation is $5,000 a year, with twenty cents for every mile of travel by 
the most usually travelled post route to and from the national capital. 



546 APPENDIX III 

under the United States shall be a member of either house during- 
his continuance in ofifice. 

Sec. VII. I. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the 
house of representatives ; but the senate may propose 
evenue i s. ^^ concur with amendments, as on other bills. 

2. Every bill which shall have passed the house of representatives 
and the senate shall, before it become a law, be presented to the 
How bills be- president of the United States. If he approve, he shall 
come laws. sign it ; but if not, he shall return it, with his objec- 
tions, to that house in which it shall have originated, who shall enter 
the objections at large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. 
If, after such reconsideration, two thirds of that house shall agree to 
pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other 
house, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved 
by two thirds of that house, it shall become a law. But, in all such 
cases, the votes of both houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, 
and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall 
be entered on the journal of each house respectively. If any bill 
shall not be returned by the president within ten days (Sundays ex- 
cepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be 
a law in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by 
their adjournment prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a 
law. 

3. Every order, resolution, or vote, to which the concurrence of 

the senate and house of representatives may be neces- 
ve^o'power" sary (except on a question of adjournment), shall be pre- 
ofthepresi- sentecl to the president of the United States ; and be- 
^"^' fore the same shall take effect, shall be approved by 

him, or, being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds 
of the senate and house of representatives, according to the rules 
and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. 
Sec. VIII. The Congress shall have power — 

1. To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay 

the debts and provide for the common defence and gen- 
Powers vested eral welfare of the United States; but all duties, im- 

m Congress. , . 11,, -r 1 11 

posts, and excises shall be uniiorm throughout the 
United States : 

2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States : 

3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the 
several states, and with the Indian tribes : 

4. To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform 
laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States : 

5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, 
and fix the standard of weights and measures : 

6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities 
and current coin of the United States : 

7. To establish post offices and post roads : 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 547 

8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by secur- 
ing-, for limited times, to authors and inventors, the exclusive right 
to their respective writings and discoveries : 

g. To constitute tribunals inferior to the supreme court : 

10. To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the 
high seas, and offences against the law of nations : 

11. To declare war, grant letters of marcjue and rejjrisal, and 
make rules concerning captures on land and water : 

12. To raise and support armies ; but no appropriation of money 
to that use shall be for a longer term than two years : 

13. To provide and maintain a navy : 

14. To make rules for the government and regulation of the land 
and naval forces : 

15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of 
the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions : 

16. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the mili- 
tia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in 
the service of the United States, reserving to the states respectively 
the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the 
militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress : 

17. To exercise exclusive legislation, in all cases whatsoever, 
over such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by ces- 
sion of particular states, and the acceptance of Congress, become 
the seat of government of the United States ; ' and to exercise like 
authority over all places purchased, by the consent of the legislature 
of the state in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, 
magazines, arsenals, dockyards, and other needful buildings : and 

18. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for 
carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers 
vested by this constitution in the government of the United States, 
or in any department or officer thereof. 

Sec. IX. I. The migration or importation of such persons as any 
of the states now existing shall think proper to admit, 
shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the how^admiued 
year one thousand eight hundred and eight ; but a tax 
or duty may be imposed on such importation, not exceeding ten dol- 
lars for each person. - 

2. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall Habeas cor- 
not be suspended, unless when, in cases of rebellion or pus. 
invasion, the public safety may require it. 

3. No bill of attainder, or ex post facto law, shall be 
passed. ^""'"'^'='-- 

4. No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, 
unless in proportion to the census or enumeration here- 
inbefore directed to be taken. 

' The District of C'jlur.ibia. 

" This has refeience to tlie foreign slave tmde. 



548 APPENDIX III 

5. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported 
Regulations from any state. 

dtutes.'"*^ 6. No preference shall be given, by any regulation of 

commerce or revenue, to the ports of one state over 
those of another ; nor shall vessels bound to or from one state be 
obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another. 

7. No money shall be drawn from the treasury but in consequence 

of appropriations made by law ; and a regular state- 
Moneys, liow nient and account of the receipts and expenditures of 
all public money shall be published irom time to time. 

8. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States, and 
Titles of "•-* person holding any office of profit or trust under 
nobility them shall, without the consent of the Congress, accept 
prohibited. ^f ^^^ present, emolument, office, or title of any kind 
whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign state. 

Sec. X. I. No state shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or con- 
„ r federation ; grant letters of marque and reprisal ; coin 

X owsrs 01 ' o 1 * ' 

states money ; emit bills of credit ; make anything but gold 

defined. ^^-^^ silver coin a tender in payment of debts ; pass any 

bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law impairing the obligation of 
contracts ; or grant any title of nobility. 

2. No state shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any 
imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be abso- 
lutely necessary for executing its inspection laws ; and the net pro- 
duce of all duties and imposts, laid by any state on imports or exports, 
shall be for the use of the treasury of the United States, and all such 
laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the Congress. 
No state shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of ton- 
nage, keep troops or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any 
agreement or compact with another state, or with a foreign power, 
or engage in war, unless actually invaded or in such imminent dan- 
ger as will not admit of delay. 



ARTICLE II. 

Section I. i. The executive power shall be vested in a Presi- 
dent of the United States of America. He shall hold 
po^wer, in his office during the term of four years, and, together 

whom vested, ^yjji^ ^j^g Vice-President, chosen for the same term, be 
elected as follows : 

2. Each state shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature 
thereof may direct, a number of electors equal to the 
Electors. vvhole number of senators and representatives to which 

the state may be entitled in the Congress ; but no senator, or repre- 
sentative, or person holding an office of trust or profit under the 
United States shall be appointed an elector. 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 549 

[3. The electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by 
ballot for two persons, of whom one, at least, shall not 
be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves. g^ig°"rs'"^^ °^ 
And they shall make a list of all the persons voted for, 
and of the number of votes for each ; which list they shall sign and 
certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the 
United States, directed to the president of the senate. The presi- 
dent of the senate shall, in the presence of the senate and house of 
representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be 
counted. The person having the greatest number of votes shall be 
the president, if such number be a majority of the whole number of 
electors appointed ; and if there be more than one who ^^^ ^^ j^^^^^^ 
have such majority, and have an equal number of votes, of represen- 
then the house of representatives shall immediately t^'^ves. 
choose, by ballot, one of them for president ; and if no person have 
a majority, then, from the five highest on the list, the said house 
shall, in like manner, choose the president. But, in choosing the 
president, the votes shall be taken by states, the representation from 
each state having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall consist 
of a member or members from two thirds of the states and a major- 
ity of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. In every case, 
after the choice of the president, the person having the greatest 
number of votes of the electors shall be the vice-president. But, if 
there should remain two or more who have equal votes, the senate 
shall choose from them, by ballot, the vice-president.] ' 

4. The Congress may determine the time of choosing t.. , 

~ *^ -^ . '^ 1 line 01 

the electors, and the day on which they shall give their choosing 
votes ; which day shall be the same throughout the '^''^^tors. 
United States.'^ 

5. No person, except a natural born citizen, or a citizen of the 
United States at the time of the adoption of this consti- „ ..r 
tution, shall be eligible to the office of president ; neither tions of the 
shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not P'^'^'^'^ent. 
have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and been fourteen years 
a resident within the United States. 

6. In case of the removal of the president from office, or of his 
death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers „ 

and duties of the said oifice, the same shall devolve on case of his 
the vice-president ; and the Congress may, by law, pro- ^isabihty. 
vide for the case of removal, death, resignation, or inability, both of 
the president and vice-president, declaring what officer shall then 
act as president ; and such officer shall act accordingly, until the 
disability be removed, or a president shall be elected. 

' This clause, within brackets, has been superseded by the i2tli Amendment. 

2 The electors are chosen on the Tuesday next after the first Monday in November pre- 
ceding the expiration of a presidential term and vote for president and vice-president on the 
second Monday of the January following. The votes are counted and declared in Congress 
tile second Wednesday of the following February. 



55^ APPENDIX III 

7. The president shall, at stated times, receive for his services a 

compensation, which shall neither be increased nor 
president "^^ diminished during the period for which he shall have 

been elected ; and he shall not receive within that 
period any other emolument from the United States, or any of 
them.^ 

8. Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the 
following oath or affirmation : — 

"1 do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the 
office of President of the United States, and will, to the 
best of my ability, preserve, protect, and defend the 
Constitution of the United States." 

Sfx. II. I. The president shall be commander-in-chief of the 
army and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the sev- 
eral states, when called into the actual service of the 
Duties of the United States; he may require the opinion, in writinjr, 

president. . . ' „. -^ • ^ , r 1 ■ , ^ 

01 the principal orncer, \n each of the executive depart- 
ments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offi- 
cers ; and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for 
offences against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. 

2. He shall have power, by and with the advice ancl consent of 
the senate, to make treaties, provided two thirds of the senators 

present concur ; and he shall nominate, and by and 
May make w'ith the advice and consent of the senate shall appoint, 

treaties, ap- ..... , 1 • i 

point am- ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, judges 

bassadors, ^f |]-,g supreme court, and all other officers of the 

1UCl^6S, etc. *■ 

United States whose appointments are not herein 
otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law. But 
the Congress may, by law, vest the appointment of such inferior 
officers as they think proper in the president alone, in the courts of 
law, or in the heads of departments. 

3. The president shall have power to fill up all vacancies that 
May fill "I'^y happen during the recess of the senate, by grant- 
vacancies, ing commissions which shall expire at the end of their 
next session. 

Sec. III. I. He shall, from time to time, give to the Congress 
information of the state of the Union, and recommend t*^ cheir con- 
sideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedi- 
May convene ent ; ' he may, on extraordinary occasions, convene 
Congress. both houses, or either of them, and, in case of disagree- 

ment between them with respect to the time of adjournment, he 
may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper ; he shall 

' The salary of the president was ^^25,000 a year until 1872, when it was increased to 
$50,000. That of the vice-president is $8,000 a year. 

' The president does this in messages at the opening of each session. Washington and 
John Adams read their messages in person to both houses of Congress. Jefferson intro- 
duced the present practice of sending to the two houses a written message by his private 
secretary. 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 55 i 

receive ambassadors and other public ministers ; he shall take care 
that the laws be faithfully executed ; and shall commission all the 
officers of the United States. 

Sec. IV. I. The president, vice-president, and all civil officers ol 
the United States, shall be removed from office on im- y^^^^ officers 
peachment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery, or may be re. 
other high crimes and misdemeanors. moved. 

ARTICLE III. 

Section I. i. The judicial power of the United States shall be 
vested in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior jy^jij-igi 
courts as the Congress may, from time to time, ordain power, how 
and establish. The judges, both of the supreme and nested, 
inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior ; and 
shall, at stated times, receive for their services a compensation which 
shall not be diminished during their continuance in office. 

Sec. II. I. The judicial power shall extend to all cases in law 
and equity, arising under this constitution, the laws of the United 
States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, ^^ ^^^^^ 
under their authority ; to all cases affecting ambassa- cases it 
dors, other public ministers, and consuls ; to all cases ^^'^nds. 
of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction ; to controversies to which 
the United States shall be a party ; to controversies between two or 
more states ; between a state and citizens of another state ; ^ between 
citizens of different states ; between citizens of the same state claim- 
ing lands under grants of different states ; and between a state, or 
the citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens, or subjects. 

2. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and 
consuls, and those in which a state shall be a party, the . . ,. .. 

, ,, , ..,..,..' T ,1 Jurisdiction 

supreme court shall have origmal jurisdiction. In all ofthesu- 
the other cases before mentioned, the supreme court P''e"ie court, 
shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such 
exceptions, and under such regulations, as the Congress shall make. 

3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall 
be by jurj^ and such trial shall be held in the state j^^i^g 
where the said crimes shall have been committed ; but respecting 
when not committed within any state, the trial shall be *"*'^- 

at such place or places as the Congress may by law have directed. 

Sec. III. I. Treason against the United States shall consist only 
in levying war against them, or in adhering to their 
enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No person jI^^j" 
shall be convicted of treason, unless on the testimony 
of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open 
court. 

1 See Amendments, Art. XI. 



55^ APPENDIX 111 

2. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of 
Ho^ treason ; but no attainder of treason shall work cor- 

punished. ruption of blood, or forfeiture, except during the life of 

the person attainted. 

ARTICLE IV. 

Section I. i. Full faith and credit shall be given in each state 
to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of 

Rights of every other state. And the Congress may, by general 

laws, prescribe the manner in which such acts, records, 

antl proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. 

Privileges S¥.c. II. I. The citizens of each state shall be en- 

ot citizens. titled to all privileges and immunities of citizens in the 

several states. 

2. A person charged in any state with treason, felony, or other 
Executive crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in 
requisitions. another State, shall, on demand of the executive author- 
ity of the state from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed 
to the state having jurisdiction of the crime.' 

3. No person held to service or labor in one state, under the laws 
^ , , thereof, escaping- into another, shall, in consequence of 

1j3,w rcfifultitinEr . . 

service or any law or regulation therein, be discharged from such 

^*^°''- service or labor ; but shall be delivered up on claim of 

the party to whom such service or labor may be due.- 

Sec. III. I. New states may be admitted by the Congress into 
New states ^^'^ Union; but no new states shall be formed or 
how formed erected witliin the jurisdiction of any other state, nor 
and admitted. ^^-^^ State be formed by the junction of two or more 
states, or parts of states, without the consent of the legislature of 
the states concerned, as well as of the Congress. 

2. The Congress shall have power to dispose of, and make all 

needful rules and regulations respecting, the territory 

Power of or Other property belonging to the United States ; and 

publfriands.^'^ nothing in this constitution shall be so construed as to 

prejudice any claims of the United States, or of any 

particular state. 

Sec. IV. I. The United States shall guarantee to every state in 
T, . r this Union a republican form of government, and shall 

Kepubhcan 1 r 1 1 

government protect each of them agamst mvasion ; and on applica- 
guaranteed. ^j^j.^ qJ- ^|^g legislature, or of the executive (when the 
legislature cannot be convened), against domestic violence. 

ARTICLE V. 

I. The Congress, whenever two thirds of both houses shall deem 
it necessary, shall propose amendments to this constitution ; or, on 

' See § 502. '^ See §§ 2S4, 556. 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 553 

the api)lication of the legislatures of two thirds of the several states, 
shall call a convention for proposing amendments, constitution 
which, in either case, shall be valid to all intents and how to be 
purposes, as part of this constitution, when ratified by ai^ended. 
the legislatures of three fourths of the several states, or by conven- 
tions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratifi- 
cation may be proposed by the Congress ; provided, that no amend 
ment which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight 
hundred and eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth 
clauses in the ninth section of the first article ; and that no state, 
without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the 
senate. 

ARTICLE VI. 

1. All debts contracted and engagements entered into vaiidit of 
before the adoption of this constitution, shall be as valid debts recog- 
against the United States under this constitution as "'^'^d. 
under the Confederation. 

2. This constitution, and the laws of the United States which 
shall be made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties „ , 

1 1 • 1 I !i 1 1 11 1 • r Supreme law 

made, or which shall be made, under the authority oi of the land 
the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land ; defined. 
and the judges in every state shall be bound thereby, anything in 
the constitution or laws of any state to the contrary notwithstanding. 

3. The senators and representatives before mentioned, and the 
members of the several state legislatures, and all executive and judi- 
cial officers, both of the United States and of the several 

states, shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support whomie- 

this constitution ; but no religious test shall ever be re- quired, and 

quired as a qualification to any office or public trust ""'^^*'- 
under the United States. 

ARTICLE VII. 

I. The ratification of the conventions of nine slates 
shall be sufficient for the establishment of this constitu- 
tion between the states so ratifying the same.' 

Done in convention by the unanimous consent of the states present, 
the seventeenth day of September, in the year of our Lord one 
thousand seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of the independ- 
ence of the United States of America the twelfth. In witness 
whereof, we have hereunto subscribed our names. -' 

GEO. WASHINGTON, 
Prcsidt. and deputy from Virginia. 

> See § 286. 

' The number of delegates chosen to the convention was sixty-live ; ten did not attend ; 
sixteen declined to sign the Constitution, or left the convention before it was ready to be 
signed. Thirty-nine signed. 



Ratification. 



554 



APPENDIX III 



NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

John Langdon, 
Nicholas Gilman. 



. MASSACHUSETTS. 

Nathaniel Gorham, 
Rufus Kine. 



CONNECTICUT. 

Wm. Saml. Johnson, 
Rogfer Sherman. 



NEW YORK. 

Alexander Hamilton. 

NEW JERSEY. 

Wil. Livingston, 
David Brearley, 
Wm. Paterson, 
Jona. Dayton. 



PENNSYLVANIA. 

B. Franklin, 
Thomas Mifflin, 
Robt. Morris, 
Geo: Clymer, 
Tho: Fitzsimons, 
Jared Ingersoll, 
James Wilson, 
Gouv: Morris. 

DELAWARE. 

Geo: Read, 
Gunning Bedford, 

Jun'r, 
John Dickinson, 
Richard Bassett, 
Jaco: Broom. 

MARYLAND. 

James M'Henry, 
Dan: of St. Thos. Jeni 

fer, 
Danl. Carroll. 



VIRGINIA. 

John Blair, 

James Madison, Jr. 

NORTH CAROLINA. 

Wm. Blount, 

Rich'd Dobbs Spaight, 

Hu. Williamson. 

SOUTH CAROLINA. 

J. Rutledge, 
Charles Cotesworth 

Pinckney, 
Charles Pinckney, 
Pierce Butler. 



Attest : 



GEORGIA. 

William Few, 
Abr. Baldwin. 
WILLIAM JACKSON, Secretary. 



AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION. 

' Art. I. Congress shall make no law respecting an establish- 
Freedomin nient of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise there- 
religion, of; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press ; 
speech, press. ^^ ^j^g righx of the people peaceably to assemble and to 
petition the government for a redress of grievances. 

Art. II. A well regulated militia being necessary to the security 
Militia. of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear 

arms shall not be infringed. 

Art. III. No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in 
Soldiers any house, without the consent of the owner ; nor in 

time of war but in a manner to be prescribed by law. 

Art. IV. The right of the people to be secure in their per- 
Search sons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable 

warrants. searches and seizures, shall not be violated ; and no 

warrants shall issue but upon probable cause, supported by oath or 
affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, 
and the persons or things to be seized. 

Art. V. No person shall be held to answer for a capital or 
otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment 

* The first ten amendments were proposed in 1789, and declared adopted in 1791. 



CONSTITUTION OF THF. UNITED STATES 555 

of a grand jury, except in cases arising- in the land or naval forces, 
or in the militia, when in actual service, in time of war capital 
or public danger ; nor shall any person lie subject for the crimes, 
same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb ; nor shall 
be compelled, in any criminal case, to be a witness against himself; 
nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of 
law ; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without 
just compensation. 

Art. VI. In all criminal prosecutions the accused shall enjoy the 
right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the state 
and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which 
district shall have been previously ascertained by law, xrial by 
and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accu- jury- 
sation ; to be confronted with the witnesses against him ; to have 
compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor ; and to 
have the assistance of counsel for his defence. 

Art. VII. In suits at common law, where the value in contro- 
versy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by §uitsatcom- 
jury shall be preserved ; and no fact tried by a jury mo" law. 
shall be otherwise re-examined, in any court of the United States, 
than according to the rules of the common law. 

Art. VIII. Excessive bail shall not be required, nor 
excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punish- ^' ' "^*' ^'*^" 
ments inflicted. 

Art. IX. The enumeration in the constitution, of Reserved 
certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or dis- rights, 
parage others retained by the people. 

Art. X. The powers not delegated to the United Powers re- 
States by the constitution, nor prohibited by it to the served, 
states, are reserved to the states respectively, or to the people. 

' Art. XI. The judicial power of the United States shall not be 
construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, com- 
menced or prosecuted against one of the United States, Judical power 
by citizens of another state, or by citizens or subjects of '"' ^ 
any foreign state. 

'^ Art. XII. The electors shall meet in their respective states, 
and vote by ballot for president and vice-president, one of whom, 
at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same state 
with themselves ; they shall name in their ballots the Amendment 
person voted for as president, and in distinct ballots the Sec. 4, respect- 
person voted for as vice-president ; and they shall make ing election of 
distinct lists of all persons voted for as president, and vice-president, 
of all persons voted for as vice-president, and of the 
number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, 

' The eleventh amendment was proposed in 1794, and declared adopted in 1798. 
* The twelfth amendment was proposed in 1S03, and declared adopted in 1804. 



556 APPENDIX III 

and transmit, sealed, to the seat of the government of the United 
States, directed to the president of the senate ; the president of 
the senate shall, in the presence of the senate and house of 
representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then 
be counted ; the person having the greatest number of votes for 
president shall be the president, if such number be a majority 
of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if no person 
have such majority, then from the persons having the highest num- 
bers, not exceeding three, on the list of those voted for as president, 
the house of representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, 
the president. But, in choosing the president, the votes shall be 
taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote ; 
a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members 
from two thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be 
necessary to a choice. And if the house of representatives shall not 
choose a president, whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon 
them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the vice- 
president shall act as president, as in the case of the death or other 
constitutional disability of the president. The person having the 
greatest number of votes as vice-president, shall be the vice-presi- 
dent, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors 
appointed ; and if no person have a majority, then from the two 
highest numbers on the list the senate shall choose the vice-presi- 
dent ; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two thirds of the 
whole number of senators, and a majority of the whole number shall 
be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible 
to the office of president, shall be eligible to that of vice-president 
of the United States. 

' Art. XIII. Sec. I. Neither slavery nor involuntary 
osavery. servitude, except as a punishment for crime, whereof 
the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the Uni- 
ted States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. 

Sec. II. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by ap- 
propriate legislation. 

'^ Art. XIV. Sec. I. All persons born or naturalized in the United 
States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the 
United States and of the state wherein they reside. No state shall 
make or enforce any law which shall abridge '',e privileges or im- 
munities of citizens of the United States ; nor shall any state deprive 
any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law, 
nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection 
of the laws. 

Sec. II. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several 
states according to their respective numbers, counting the whole 
number of persons in each state, excluding Indians not taxed. But 

' The thirteenth amendment was proposed and adopted in 1865 (§ 757). 

- The fourteenth amendment was proposed in 1S66, and adopted in 1868 (§ 763). 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 557 

when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for 
president and vice-president of the United States, representatives in 
Congress, the executive or judicial officers of a state, or the mem- 
bers of the legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhab- 
itants of such state, being twenty-one years of age and citizens of 
the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation 
in rebellion or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall 
be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citi- 
zens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one 
years of age in such state. 

Sec. III. No person shall be a senator or representative in Con- 
gress, or elector of president or vice-president, or hold any office, 
civil or military, under the United States, or under any state, who, 
having previously taken an oath as a member of Congress, or as an 
officer of the United States, or as a member of any state legislature, 
or as an executive or judicial officer of any state, to support the con- 
stitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or 
rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies 
thereof. But Congress may, by a vote of two thirds of each house, 
remove such disability. 

Sec. IV. The validity of the public debt of the United States, 
authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pen- 
sions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebel- 
lion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor 
any state shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid 
of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim 
for the loss or emancipation of any slave ; but all such debts, obli- 
gations, and claims shall be held illegal and void. 

Sec. V. Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate 
legislation, the provisions of this article. 

' Art. XV. Sec. I. The rights of citizens of the United States to 
vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States, or by any 
state, on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. 

Sec. II. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by 
appropriate legislation. 

' The fifteenth ameudiiient was proposed in 1S69, and adopted in 1870 (§ 789). 



APPENDIX IV 



FORMATION OF STATES 



I- Delaware ratifie 

2. Pennsylvania 

3. New Jersey 

4- Georgia 

5- Connecticut 
6. Massachusetts 
7- Maryland 
8. South Carolina 

New Hampshire 
Virginia 
New York 
North Carolina 

13- Rhode Island 

14- Vermont admitt 

15- Kentucky 
16. Tennessee 

Ohio 

Louisiana 
Indiana 
Mississippi 
Illinois 
Alabama 
Maine 
Missouri 
Arkansas 
26. Michigan 
~1- Florida 
Texas 
Iowa 

Wisconsin 
California 
Minnesota 
Oregon 
Kansas 
35- West Virginia 
36. Nevada 

37- Nebraska 

38- Colorado 

39- North Dakota 
40. South Dakota 
41- Montana 
42. Washington 

43- Idaho 

44- Wyoming 

45- Utah 



d the Constitution. 



9- 
ro. 
II. 
12. 



17. 
18. 
19. 
20. 
21. 
22. 

23- 
24. 

25- 



28. 
29. 
30. 

31- 

32. 
33- 
34- 



ed to the Union. 



pec. 7, 1787 

Dec. 12, 1787 

Dec. 18, 1787 

Jan. 2, 1788 

Jan. 9, iy83 

Feb. 6, 1788 

Apr. 28, 1788 

May 23, 1788 

June 21. 178S 

June 25, 1788 

July 26, 1788 

Nov. 21, 1789 

• -May 29, 1790 

Mar. 4, i7gj 

June I, 1792 

June I, 1796 

•■ -Nov. 29, 1802 
•-•Apr. 30, 1812 
•••Dec. II, 1816 
•••Dec. 10, 1817 
••.Dec. 3, 1818 
•••Dec. 14, 1819 
•••Mar. 15, 1820 
••Aug. 10, 1821 
■•June 15, 1836 
••Jan. 26. 1837 
..Mar. 3, 1845 

•Dec. 29. 1845 
••Dec. 28, 1846 
••May 29, 1848 
■•Sept. 9, 1850 
•■May II, 1858 

■ ■F'eb. 14, 1859 

■ -Jan. 2g, 1861 
•June 19, 1863 
•Oct. 31, 1864 
•Mar. I, 1867 
■Aug, I, 1876 

•Nov. 3, 1889 

•Nov. 3, 1889 

•Nov. 8, 1889 

•Nov.ii, 1889 

•July 3, 1890 

•July 10, 1890 

•Jan. 4, 1896 

559 



56o 



APPENDIX V 



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GROIVTH OF THl: STATES 



561 






- 


w OOOOOOO fcJ'OOOO row M roOO OO mrf'-" N MOO m 
-i-M o\\D lAO oro- (N M M ^C1 •- t^'<1-00'O o-^t^w 


vo' 




00 


000 '^OOVOCO 00 t^ CO N N 
^t>.Ot-i oii^oo O'O^O'O roo (N W ■-• 

« 00" cT 00" N vd" m' w c> 10 ro vo" oo~ pr m" cT 


in o. 00 10 0. in 
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(N 00 ■*■ d in 0' cT 
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vo 




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562 



/1PPENDIX VI 





C/1 




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o t>. m n-)vO 



( ovo t^oo 000 o O "-• "^ »n avo N in ■-• fooo m ' 
m ■*■*»■ r-* N O -i-oo "O '- >- o m cs co mco »n t-- t 

) in ■- 00 in cTvo Choo N is 6 in 0' in (> m^ ,-^ o>oc 



O O -^vO O ■* -^ mvO 1^ 0^ OS -^ ( 



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■vowNinNmmiN 



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)VO intMVO "^M NOO Tj-vo ■- OD (N 00 mvO >- W « o-iOO f*^ N 00 O 

« O r^ m N O "^-O t^ O'O ■* O O i-" vo mD « "i-vO r*^ O 00 O ►- v 

■ "O 'f o o- m' rnoo o -^ rn in M tjoo a> oco Ov -^ t^ 4^oo vo a- o 



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APPENDIX VI 



563 



tnoo »no«t*-^NO'n'-'0 f-'O "o t-. •- 00 coo m n -^-o « ^ o» ? Si J^ ^^°° ^ « 
m t>.oo O TO ^ N o^lnM Mvo^O "^^c>o^^<>«or:r'^, 9.'^-^, '^. '^°*l ^^. ^ *^ 'C' ■^ 

lA pf d VO (N OcT t^ r^^O N lA^o' ro I- O »^Co' iTifTN vomw '<^N O <-• not ■-■ roO'OOO'OCO 
00 O 00 ^'O 00 rovo O O 10 O^ M C> c>. tN.00 ^ O t^^O ^lOOOO^OUD O f< t^'O m t^ t-- '-' 
«M w Md^Mw N^roM wwini-imM mm w ^ 

fT) M 

0000000 r^ *- inM N Noo ^■*m»nro"0O t^^ r^O O omr*.N c^^^NOD^ r^'O - ^ 
l?^7>i'0 ^ r^ino^ooo iniow o^ t^oo -.j-vo m IN N ui m o-co M m ID r^ r- iO !f2 ^ S ? - ^ 
M r^ « 10 [^ ^ o- in^o -J- CO o 00 ■* t^ *^.\0 00 <^ <-^ f^ "-. <:>"^ t^,«i •-', ^.^.^ t "^ °, ^ 'T ^ 
-^ -j^<r M o hT »4" roco" o 00 i-T ■<? 00 ^ N 00" dooNdfot^<^"Dcs'o''^i>-<N ""^o'^^-O'"^ 

O O t^OO -VOO ^M ■"J-^t^'^'^'-n-^fO ITIOO fO^MD fnO\-4-t>."^"^ 'J-OO oo ^jto -^ N vO CO 

W«r- NinM O^WM IH'.J-MN W 

(^T^Ooo iDN o 0\ tooo M o O *> t^ r^oo ©"O moo mooo fofoo w t^O t-'* rr^oo •- 

5000 iDO -VOO OOvm— r^. m t^oo (^>Ar~>.ONCl rOM r^iOO ir)(^(^'«-OrOM -^fMO'I^a 
u-ioo ro moo ooowiDiDONM m moo «vo r--. "^m'^ot~^xi mOforv.M or-ON'n'W 
10*0' pnvO vo N\D'vcr ■^ O^ "-'^ On t^vo tC-rfrOfO-:7>N '-' roO inf^i'^fO'- O CT^O f*'. r^ N oO 
M •v■^m«^0 M o f^mmcN -r^-mM -^^ oofomTj-rom^ 'Nfomiowmro-^'^m 
Mi-WN ooMM cow •-■ 

O^D moo 000 N O t^ 0^0^ ^■^ ro^OoovO m-^o r^mw t^mroM ■"^■^m-^OM m 
•i-o vo mc4 ^M Chooo r^'-i-w t^ao ^ f^.oo ^o\o mr^o-io\Ooo moo t^'C o o -*■ o 
■^ o 00 o (^00 ■* w m o moo O Ow C^C^O^f^moo O "<j-no M-or^q. "^oo, "^"^^ *". *^ *". 
hT (^ m m M o' M «' o'^" f^. N •<?'o'oo co' ro i-T n" o cT d doo m m" ■4-vo" m <- n 'o'oo cf o m 
txM NONmoThr^M MN c^oo vo CO m'O MMW-^wm Mct^row-^MOrnf 

M M O \0 rO M M 



o '♦■oo -* O t^ in M fO roc 
■*vo 00 M o vo t-^ m -^oo ( 

N »DOOr0C4V0V0 »noO 
m N ^ w" w d-oo' m M*" m' 



O r-^ r- O O C7* { 

-odod d d\d ci c 



m o ooo 00 

N O M VO N 

O M M t^ N 



o^co o> a> • 



M O (^ -• 

r^ M m o 

M Tf- M -^ 
r^.QO 6 6 



m ooo M o 
1 ON m M f*^ O^ 
) d^ t^ dvd rp 



vo mvo o 



•^- o . mvo ro r>. 
t^ c> ' o m MOO 
\0 vd • f^ M*" oo 00 : 'fl- 



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O • o ■ r^ 



„ On O ON 
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■^ c rt 












5^4 



APPENDIX yil 



APPENDIX VII 
POPULATION OF THE SECTIONS, 1790-1860 



Year. 


Free States. 


Slave States. 


1790 


1,968,453 


1.961,374 


1800 


2,684,616 


2,621,316 


1810 


3,758,910 


3,480,902 


1820 


5,152,372 


4,485,819 


1830 


7, 006, 399 


5,848,312 


1840 


9.733,922 


7,334,433 


1S50 


13,599,488 


9,663,997 


i860 


19,128,418 


12,315,372 



APPENDIX VIII 

CONGRESSIONAL REPRESENTATION OF THE 
SECTIONS, 1790-1860 



Year. 


Senate. 


House. 


Free Stales. 


Slave States. 


Free States. 


Slave States. 


1790 


14 


12 


35 


30 


1792 


16 


14 


57 


48 


1796 


16 


16 


57 


49 


1800 


16 


16 


57 


49 


1804 


18 


16 


77 


65 


1808 


18 


16 


77 


65 


1812 


18 


18 


103 


79 


1816 


20 


18 


104 


79 


1820 


24 


24 


105 


82 


1824 


24 


24 


123 


90 


1828 


24 


24 


123 


90 


1832 


24 


24 


141 


99 


1836 


26 


26 


142 


100 


1840 


26 


26 


142 


lOQ 


1844 


26 


26 


135 


98 


1848 


30 


30 


139 


91 


1852 


32 


30 


144 


90 


1856 


32 


30 


144 


90 


i860 


36 


30 


147 


90 



IW To find the Electoral Voles, add together lUe number of Senators and 
Representatives, 



APPENDIX IX 



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APPENDIX X 
CABINET OFFICERS OF THE ADMINISTRATIONS 

George Washington (I. and II.), 1789-1797. 

Secretary of State, Thomas Jefferson, Virginia, September 26th, 
1789; Edmund Randolph, Virginia, January 2d, 1794; Timothy 
Pickering, Pennsylvania, December loth, 1795. Secretary of 
Treasury, Alexander Hamilton, New York, September nth, 1789 ; 
Oliver Wolcott, Connecticut, February 2d, 1795. Secretary of War, 
Henry Knox, Massachusetts, September 12th, 1789; Timothy Pick- 
ering, Pennsylvania, January 2d, 1795 ; James McHenry, Maryland, 
January 27th, 1796. Attorney-General, Edmund Randolph, Virginia, 
September 26th, 1789 ; William Bradford, Pennsylvania, January 
27th, 1794; Charles Lee, Virginia, December loth, 1795. Post- 
viaster-General,^ E. Hazard, January 28th, 1782-September 29th, 
1789 ; Samuel Osgood, Massachusetts, September 29th, 1789 ; Tim- 
othy Pickering, Pennsylvania, August 12th, 1791 ; Joseph Haber- 
sham, Georgia, February 25th, 1795. 

John Adams (HI.), 1797-1801. 

Secretary of State, Timothy Pickering, continued ; John Mar- 
shall, Virginia, May 13th, 1800. Secretary oj Treasury, Oliver 
Wolcott, continued ; Samuel Dexter, Massachusetts, January ist, 
1801. Secretary of War, James McHenry, continued; Samuel 
Dexter, Massachusetts, May 13th, 1800; Roger Griswold, Con- 
necticut, February 3d, 1801. Secretary of A^«7/y,^ George Cabot, 
Massachusetts, May 3d, 1798; Benjamin Stoddert, Maryland, May 
2ist, 1798. Attorney-Goieral, Charles Lee, continued ; Theophilus 
Parsons, Massachusetts, February 20th, 1801. Postjuaster-Gen- 
eral, Joseph Habersham, continued. 

' Not a Cabinet officer, but a subordinate of the Treasury Department until 1829. 

^ Naval affairs were under the control of the Secretary of War until a separate Navy De- 
partment was organized by Act of April scth, lyuS. The Acts organizing the other Depart- 
ments were of the following dates : Staie, September 15th. 1789; Treasury, September 2d, 
1789 ; War, August 7th, 1789. The Attorney-General's duties were regulated by the Judi- 
ciary Act of September 24th, 1789. Interior, March 3d, 1849. For the establishment of 
the Department of Agriculture, see § 296. 

567 



56S ylPPENDlX X 

Thomas Jefferson (IV. and V.), 1 801-1809. 

Secretary of State, James Madison, Virginia, Marcli 5th, 1801. 
Secretary of Treasury, Samuel Dexter, continued ; Albert GaUatin, 
Pennsylvania, May 14th, 1 801. Secretary of War, Henry Dearborn, 
Massachusetts, March 5th, 1801. Secretary of Navy, Benjamin 
Stoddert, continued ; Robert Smith, Maryland, July 15th, 1801 ; 
Jacob Crowninshield, Massachusetts, May 3d, 1805. Attorney-Gen- 
eral, Levi Lincoln, Massachusetts, March 5th, 1801 ; Robert Smith, 
Maryland, March 3d, 1805 ; John Breckinridge, Kentucky, August 
7th, 1805 ; Ctesar A. Rodney, Pennsylvania, January 20th, 1807. 
Postmaster-General, Joseph Habersham, continued ; Gideon Gran- 
ger, Connecticut, November 28th, 1801. 

James Madison (VL and VIL), 1809-1817. 

Secretary of State, Robert Smith, Maryland, March 6th, 1809; 
James Monroe, Virginia, April 2d, 181 1. Secretary of Treasury, 
Albert Gallatin, continued ; George W. Campbell, Tennessee, Feb- 
ruary 9th, 1814; A. J. Dallas, Pennsylvania, October 6th, 1814; 
William H. Crawford, Georgia, October 22d, 181 6. Secretary of 
War, William Eustis, Massachusetts, March 7th, 1809; John Arm- 
strong, New York, January 13th, 1813 ; James Monroe, Virginia, 
September 27th, 1814; William H. Crawford, Georgia, August ist, 
1 81 5. Secretary of Navy, Paul Hamilton, South Carolina, March 
7th, 1809 ; William Jones, Pennsylvania, January 12th, 1813; B. 
W. Crowninshield, Massachusetts, December 19th, 181 4. Attorney- 
General, C. A. Rodney, continued ; William Pinckney, Maryland, 
December nth, 181 1 ; Richard Rush, Pennsylvania, February loth, 
1 814. Pos master-General, Gideon Granger, continued ; Return J. 
Meigs, Ohio, March 17th, 1814. 

James Monroe (VIIL and IX.), 1817-1825. 

Secretary of State, John Ouincy Adams, Massachusetts, March 
5th, 1 81 7. Secretary of Treasury, William H. Crawford, con- 
tinued. Secretary of War, George Graham, Virginia, April 7th, 
1817 ; John C. Calhoun, South Carolina, October 8th, 1817. Secre- 
tary of Navy, B. W. Crowninshield, continued; Smith Thompson, 
New York, November 9th, 1818 ; John Rogers, Massachusetts, 
September ist, 1823; Samuel L. Southard, New Jersey, Sep- 
tember 1 6th, 1823. Attorney-General, Richard Rush, continued; 
William Wirt, Virginia, November 13th, 1817. Postmaster-Gen- 
eral, R. J. Meigs, continued ; John McLean, Ohio, June 26th, 1823. 

John Quincy Adams (X.). 1 825-1829. 

Secretary of State, Henry Clay, Kentucky, March 7th, 1825. Sec- 
retary of Treasury, Richard Rush, Pennsylvania, March 7th, 1825. 



CABINET OFFICERS OF THE /ADMINISTRATIONS 5^9 

Secretary of War, James Barbour, Virginia, March 7th, 1825 ; 
Peter B. Porter, New Yori<, May 26th, 1828. Secretary of Navy, 
S. L. Southard, continued. Attorney-General, William Wirt, con- 
tinued. Post/naster-General, John McLean, continued. 

Andrew Jackson (XI. and XII.), 1 829-1 837. 

Secretary of State, Martin Van Buren, New York, March 6th, 
1829; Edward Livingston, Louisiana, May 24th, 1831 ; Louis 
McLane, Delaware, May 29th, 1833; John F'orsyth, Georgia, June 
27th, 1834. Secretary of Treasury, Samuel D. Ingham, Pennsyl- 
vania, March 6th, 1829; Louis McLane, Delaware, August 8th, 
1831 ; William J. Duane, Pennsylvania, May 29th, 1833 ; Roger B. 
Taney, Maryland, September 23d, 1833; Levi Woodbury, New 
Hampshire, June 27th, 1834. Secretary of War, John H. Eaton, 
Tennessee, March 9th, 1829; Lewis Cass, Michigan, August ist, 
1831 ; Benjamin F. Butler, New York, March 3d, 1837. Secretary 
of Navy, ]o\\r\ Branch, North Carolina, March 9th, 1829; Levi 
Woodbury, New Hampshire, May 23d, 1831 ; Mahlon Dickerson, 
New Jersey, June 30th, 1834. Attorney-General, John M. Berrien, 
Georgia, March 9th, 1839 ; Roger B. Taney, Maryland, July 20th, 
1831 ; Benjamin F. Butler, New York, November 15th, 1833. Post- 
master-General, \N\\\\s.m T. Barry, Kentucky, March 9th, 1829; 
Amos Kendall, Kentucky, May ist, 1835. 

Martin Van Buren (XIII.), 1 837-1 841. 

Secretary of State, John Forsyth, continued. Secretary of Treas- 
ury, Levi Woodbury, continued. Secretary of War, Joel R. Poin- 
sett, South Carolina, March 7th, 1837. Secretary of Nat/y, MaMon 
Dickerson, continued ; James K. Paulding, New York, June 25th, 
1838. Attorney-General, Benjamin F. Butler, continued ; Felix 
Grundy, Tennessee, July 5th, 1838; Henry D.Gilpin, Pennsylvania, 
January nth, 1840. Postmaster-General, Amos Kendall, con- 
tinued ; John M. Niles, Connecticut, May 19th, 1840. 

Wm. H. Harrison, (XIV.), 1841-1845. 

Secretary of State, Daniel Webster, Massachusetts, March 5th, 
1 841 ; Hugh S. Legare, South Carolina, May 9th, 1843 ; A. P. 
Upshur, Virginia, July 24th, 1843 ; John C. Calhoun, South Caro- 
lina, March 6th, 1844. Secretary of Treasury, Thomas Ewing, 
Ohio, March 5th, 1841 ; Walter Forward, Pennsylvania, September 
13th, 1 841 ; John C. Spencer, New York, March 3d, 1843 ; George 
M. Bibb, Kentucky, June 15th, 1844. Secretary of War, John Bell, 
Tennessee, March 5th, 1841 ; John McLean, Ohio, September 13th, 
1 841 ; John C. Spencer, New York, October 12th, 1841 ; James M. 



570 APPENDIX X 

Porter, Pennsylvania, March 8th, 1843 ; WiUiam Wilkins, Pennsyl- 
vania, February 15th, 1844. Secretary of Navy, G. E. Badger, 
North Carolina, March 5th, 1841 ; A. P. Upshur, Virginia, Septem- 
ber 13th, 1 841 ; David Henshaw, Massachusetts, July 24th, 1843; 
T. W. Gilmer, Virginia, February 15th, 1844; John Y. Mason, Vir- 
ginia, March 14th, 1844. Attorney-General, John J. Crittenden, 
Kentucky, March 5th, 1841 ; Hugh S. Legare, South Carolina, Sep- 
tember 13th, 1 841 ; John Nelson, Maryland, July ist, 1843. Post- 
master-General, Francis Granger, New York, March 6th, 1841 ; 
Charles A. Wickliffe, Kentucky, September 13th, 1841. 

James K. Polk (XV.), 1 845-1 849. 

Secretary of State, James Buchanan, Pennsylvania, March 6th, 
1845. Secretary of Treasury, Robert J. Walker, Mississippi, 
March 6th, 1845. Secretary of War, William L. Marcy, New 
York, March 6th, 1845. Secretary of Navy , George Bancroft, Mas- 
sachusetts, March loth, 1845 ; John Y. Mason, Virginia, September 
9th, 1846. Attorney-General, John Y. Mason, Virginia, March 5th, 
1845; Nathan Clifford, Maine, October 17th, 1846. Postmaster- 
General, Cave Johnson, Tennessee, March 6th, 1845. 

Zachary Taylor (XVI.), 1849-1853. 

Secretary of State, John M. Clayton, Delaware, March 7th, 1849; 
Daniel Webster, Massachusetts, July 22d, 1850; Edward Everett, 
Massachusetts, December 6th, 1852. Secretary of Treasury, W. 
M. Meredith, Pennsylvania, March 8th, 1849; Thomas Corwin, 
Ohio, July 23d, 1850. Secretary of State, George W. Crawford, 
Georgia, March 8th, 1849; Winfield Scott {ad interim), July 23d, 
1850; Charles M. Conrad, Louisiana, August 15th, 1850. Secre- 
tary of Navy,W\\\\Sim B. Preston, Virginia, March 8th, 1849; 
William A. Graham, North Carolina, July 22d, 1850 ; J. P. Ken- 
nedy, Maryland, July 22d, 1852. Secretary of Literior,^ ThomSiS H. 
Ewing, Ohio, March 8th, 1849; -^- ^- H- Stuart, Virginia, Septem- 
ber 1 2th, 1850. Attorney-General, Reverdy Johnson, Maryland, 
March 8th, 1849; John J. Crittenden, Kentucky, July 22d, 1850. 
Postmaster-General, Jacob Collamer, Vermont, March 8th, 1849; 
Nathan K. Hall, New York, July 23d, 1850 ; S. D. Hubbard, Con- 
necticut, August 31st, 1852. 

Franklin Pierce (XVII.), 1853-1857. 

Secretary of State, William L. Marcy, New York, March 7th, 
1853 ; Secretary of Treasury, James Guthrie, Kentucky, March 7th, 
1853; Secretary <y" ^F^^r, Jefferson Davis, Mississippi, March 7th, 

' Organized by Act of March 3d, 1849. 



CABINET OFFICERS OF THE ADMINISTRATIONS ST^ 

1853. Secretary of Navy, James C. Dobbin, North Carolina, 
March 7th, 1853. Secretary of Interior, Robert McClelland, Mich- 
igan, March 7th, 1853. ^It tor )iey -General, Caleb Cushing, Massa- 
chusetts, March 7th, 1853. Postmaster-General, James Campbell, 
Pennsylvania, March 7th, 1853. 

James Buchanan (XVIII.), 1 857-1 861. 

Secretary of State, Lewis Cass, Michigan, March 6th, 1857 ; J. S. 
Black, Pennsylvania, December 17th, i860. Secretary of Treasury, 
Howell Cobb, Georgia, March 6th, 1857 ; Philip F. Thomas, Mary- 
land, December 12th, i860; John A. Dix, New York, January nth, 
1 861. Secretary of War, John B. Floyd, Virginia, March 6th, 
1857 ; Joseph Holt, Kentucky, January i8th, 1861. Secretary of 
Navy, Isaac Toucey, Connecticut, March 6th, 1857. Secretary of 
hiterior, Jacob Thompson, Mississippi, March 6th, 1857. Attor- 
ney-General, J. S. Black, Pennsylvania, March 6th, 1857 ; E. M. 
Stanton, Pennsylvania, December 20th, i860. Postmaster-General, 
Aaron V. Brown, Tennessee, March 6th, 1857 ; Joseph Holt, Ken- 
tucky, March 14th, 1859; Horatio King, Maine, February 12th, 
1 861. 

Abraham Lincoln ) .^tv ..^^ w n o^ q^ 
. T mXIX. and XX.), i86i-i86q. 

Andrew Jackson ) ^ ''' ^ 

Secretary of State, William H. Seward, New York, March 5th, 
1861. Secretary of Treasury, S. P. Chase, Ohio, March 5th, 1861; 
W. P. Fessenden, Maine, July ist, 1864; Hugh McCuUoch, Indiana, 
March 7th, 1865. Secretary of War, Simon Cameron, Pennsyl- 
vania, March 5th, 1 861 ; Edwin M. Stanton, Pennsylvania, January 
15th, 1862; U.S.Grant {ad interim),^ August 12th, 1867; Edwin 
M. Stanton (reinstated), January 14th, 1868; J. M. Scofield, Illinois, 
May 28th, 1868. Secretary of Navy, Gideon Welles, Connecticut, 
March 5th, 1861. Secretary of Interior, Caleb P. Smith, March 
5th, 1861 ; John P. Usher, Indiana, January 8th, 1863 ; James Har- 
lan, Iowa, May 15th, 1865; O. H. Browning, Illinois, July 27th, 
1866. Attorney-General , Edward Bates, Missouri, March 5th, 1861 ; 
Titian J. Coffey [ad interim"), June 22d, 1863; James Speed, Ken- 
tucky, December 2d, 1864; Henry Stanbery, Ohio, July 23d, 1866; 
William M. Evarts, New York, July 15th, 1868. Postmaster- 
General, Montgomery Blair, Maryland, March 5th, 1861 ; William 
Dennison, Ohio, September 24th, 1864; Alexander W. Randall, 
Wisconsin, July 25th, 1866. 

Ulysses S. Grant (XXI. and XXII.), 1 869-1 877. 

Secretary of State, E. B. Washburne, Illinois, March 5th, 1869; 
Hamilton Fish, New York, March nth, 1869. Secretary of Treas- 

* See p. 216. 



57 2 APPENDIX X 

7^;-/, George S. Boutwell, Massachusetts, March nth, 1869; Wil- 
liam A. Richardson, Massachusetts, March 17th, 1873; Benjamin 
H. Bristow, Kentucky, June 2d, 1874; Lot M. Morrill, Maine, June 
2 1 St, 1876. Secretary of War, John A. Rawlins, Illinois, March 
nth, 1869; William T. Sherman, Ohio, September 9th, 1869 ; Wil- 
liam W. Belknap, Iowa, October 25th, 1869; Alphonso Taft, Ohio, 
March 8th, 1876; J. D. Cameron, Pennsylvania, May 22d, 1876. 
Secretary of Navy, Adolph E. Borie, Pennsylvania, March 5th, 
1869; George M. Robeson, New Jersey, June 25th, 1869. Secre- 
tary of Interior, ^oXwi D. Cox, Ohio, March 5th, 1869; Columbus 
Delano, Ohio, November ist, 1870; Zachariah Chandler, Michigan, 
October 19th, 1875. Attorney-General, E. R. Hoar, Massachusetts, 
March 5th, 1869; Amos T. Akerman, Georgia, June 23d, 1870; 
George H. Williams, Oregon, December 14th, 1871 ; Edwards 
Pierrepont, New York, April 26th, 1875 ; Alphonso Taft, Ohio, 
May 22d, 1876. Postmaster-Genera/, J. A. J. Creswell, Maryland, 
March 5th, 1869 ; Marshall Jewell, Connecticut, August 24th, 1874; 
James M. Tyner, Indiana, July 12th, 1876. 

Rutherford B. Hayes (XXIII.), 1877-1881. 

Secretary of State, William M. Evarts, New York, March 12th, 
1877. Secretary of Treasury, John Sherman, Ohio, March 8th, 
1877. Secretary of War, George W. McCrary, Iowa, March 12th, 
1877; Alexander Ramsey, Minnesota, December 12th, 1879, ^'^'^' 
retary of Navy, Richard W. Thompson, Indiana, March 12th. 
1877 ; Nathan Goff, Jr., West Virginia, January 6th, 1881. 
Secretary of Interior, Carl Schurz, Missouri, March 12th, 1877. 
Attorney-General, Charles Devens, Massachusetts, March 12th, 
1877, Postmaster-General, David M. Key, Tennessee, March 12th, 
1877 ; Horace Maynard, Tennessee, August 25th, 1880. 

t}^ll_\ ^^^!.'.^.^^ I (XXIV.). 1881-1885. 



Chester A. Arthur 
Secretary of State, ]?imG:s G. Blaine, Maine, March 5th, 1881 ; 
Frederick T. Frelinghuysen, New Jersey, December 12th, 1881. 
Secretary of Treasury, William H. Windom, Minnesota, March 
5th, 1881 ; Charles J. Folger, New York, October 27th, 1881. Sec- 
retary of War, Robert T. Lincoln, Illinois, March 5th, 1881. Sec- 
retary of Navy, W. H. Hunt, Louisiana, March 5th, 1881 ; Wm. 
E. Chandler, New Hampshire, April 12th, 1882. Secretary of In- 
terior, S. J. Kirkwood, Iowa, March 5th, 1881 ; Henry M. Teller, 
Colorado, April 6th, 1882. Attorney-General, Wayne MacVeagh, 
Pennsylvania, March 5th, 1881 ; Benjamin H. Brewster, Pennsyl- 
vania, December i6th, 1881. Postmaster-General, Thomas L. 
James, New York, March 5th, 1881 ; Timothy O. Howe, Wisconsin, 
December 20th, 1881 ; W. O. Gresham, Indiana, April 3d, 1883; 
Frank Hatton, Iowa, October 14th, 1884. 



CABINET OFFICHRS OF THE ADMINISTRATIONS 573 

Grover Cleveland (XXV.), 1885-1889. 

Secretary of State, Thomas F. Bayard, Delaware, March 6th, 
1885. Secretary of Treasury, Daniel Manning, New York, March 
6th, 1885; Charles S. Fairchild, New York, April ist, 1887. Secre- 
tary of War, William C. Endicott, Massachusetts, March 6th, 1885. 
Secretary of Xavy, William C. Whitney, New York, March 6th, 
1885. Secretary of Interior, Lucius Q. C. Lamar, Mississippi, 
March 6th, 1885 ; William F. Vilas, Wisconsin, January i6th, 1888. 
Attorney-General, Augustus H. Garland, Arkansas, March 6th, 
1885. Postmaster-General, William F. Vilas, Wisconsin, March 
6th, 1885 ; Don Vi. Dickinson, Michigan, January i6th, 1888. 

Benjamin Harrison (XXVL), 1889-1893. 

Secretary of State, ^ ]^x\\^s G. Blaine, Maine, March 7th, 1889; 
John W. Foster, Indiana, June 29th, 1892. Secretary of Treasury, 
William Windom, Minnesota, March 7th, 1889; Charles Foster, 
Ohio, February 25th, 1891. Secretary of War, Redfield Proctor, 
Vermont, March 7th, 1889; Stephen 13. Elkins, West Virginia, De- 
cember 24th, 1 89 1. Attorney-General, W. H. H. Miller, Indiana, 
March 7th, i88g. Postmaster-General, John W^anamaker, Penn- 
sylvania, March 7th, 1889. Secretary of Navy, Benj. F. Tracy, 
New York, March 7th, 1889. Secretary of Interior, John W. 
Noble, Missouri, March 7th, 1889. Secretary of Agriculture, Jere. 
M. Rusk, Wisconsin, March 7th, 1889. 

Grover Cleveland (XXVII. ), 1893-1897. 

Secretary of State, Walter O. Gresham, Illinois, March 7th, 
1893 ; Richard Olney, Massachusetts, June loth, 1895. Secretary 
of Treasury, ]ohn G. Cz.i-\\s\t, Kentucky, March 7th, 1893. Secre- 
tary of War, Daniel S. Lamont, New York, March 7th, 1893. 
Attorney-General, Richard Olney, Massachusetts, March 7th, 1893 ; 
Judson Harmon, Ohio, June i ith, 1895. Postmaster-Ge?ieral, Wil- 
son S. Bissell, New York, March 7th, 1893 ; William L. Wilson, 
West Virginia, April 3d, 1895. Secretary of Navy, Hilary A. 
Herbert, Alabama, March 7th, 1893. Secretary of Interior, Hoke 
Smith, Georgia, March 7th, 1893 ; David R. Francis, Missouri, Sep- 
tember 3d, 1896. Secretary of Agriculture, JuVius Sterling Morton, 
Nebraska, March 7th, 1893. 

William McKinley (XXVIII.), 1897-1900. 

Secretary of State, John Sherman, Ohio, March 6th, 1897 ; Wil- 
liam R. Day, Ohio, April 26th, 1898 ; John Hay, Ohio, September 

' The Cabinet is here arranged in tlie order of succession for the Presidency according to 
Act of XLIXth Congress, whicli does not, however, inchide the Secretary of Agricuhure. 



574 APPENDIX X 

30th, 1898. Secretary of Treasury, Lyman J. Gage, Illinois, 
March 6th, 1897. Secretary of War, Russell A.Alger, Michigan, 
March 6th, 1897 ; Elihu Root, New York, July 22(1, 1899. Attorney- 
General, Joseph McKenna, California, March 6th, 1897 ; John W. 
Griggs, New Jersey, January 31st, 1898. Postmaster-General, 
James A. Gary, Maryland, March 6th, 1897 ; Charles Emory Smith, 
Pennsylvania, April 21st, 1898. Secretary of Navy , John D. Long, 
Massachusetts, March 6th, 1897. Secretary of Interior, Cornelius 
N. Bliss, New York, Marcji 6th, 1897. Secretary of Agriculture, 
James Wilson, Iowa, March 6th, 1897. 



APPENDIX XI 



EXTRACTS FROM WASHINGTON'S FAREWELL ADDRESS 
TO THE AMERICAN PEOPLE 

Sept. 17, 1796. 

Friends and Fellow Citizens : The period for a new election 
of a citizen to administer the executive government of the United 
States being not far distant, it appears to me proper that I should 
now apprise you of the resolution which I have formed, to decline 
being considered among the number of those out of whom a choice 
is to be made. In looking forward to the moment which is intended 
to terminate my public life, my feelings do not permit me to sus- 
pend the deep acknowledgment of that debt of gratitude which I 
owe to my beloved country for the many honors it has conferred 
upon me ; still more for the steadfast confidence with which it has 
supported me, and for the opportunities I have thence enjoyed of 
manifesting my attachment by services faithful and persevering, 
though in usefulness unequal to my zeal. If benefits have resulted 
to our country from these services, let it always be remembered to 
your praise, and as an instructive example in our annals, that the con- 
stancy of your support was the essential prop of the efforts, and of 
the plans by which they were effected. Here, perhaps, I ought to 
stop ; but solicitude for your welfare urges me to offer to your 
solemn contemplation, and to recommend to your frequent review, 
some sentiments which appear to me all-important to your felicity 
as a people. 

Interwoven as is the love of liberty with every ligament of your 
hearts, no recommendation of mine is necessary to confirm the at- 
tachment. The unity of government, which constitutes you one 
people, is also now dear to you. It is justly so ; for it is a main 
pillar in the edifice of your real independence — the support of your 
tranquillity at home, your peace abroad, of your safety, of your pros- 
perity, of that very liberty which you so highly prize. While, then, 
every part of our country feels an interest in the Union, all the 
parts combined cannot fail to find greater strength, greater re- 
source, greater security from external danger, a less frequent inter- 
ruption of their peace by foreign nations, and an exemption from 
wars between themselves. Hence, likewise, they will avoid the 
necessity of those overgrown military establishments, which are par- 

575 



5 7^ IVASHlNGTOhl'S FAREIVELL ADDRESS 

ticularly hostile to republican liberty. In this sense it is that your 
union ought to be considered as the main prop of your liberty. 

Of all the dispositions and habits which lead to political pros- 
perity, religion, and morality are indispensable supports. In vain 
would that man claim the tribute of patriotism, who should labor 
to subvert these great pillars of human happiness. The mere poli- 
tician, equally with the pious man, ought to respect and to cherish 
them. 

Promote, as an object of primary importance, institutions for the 
general diffusion of knowledge. In proportion as the structure of a 
government gives force to public opinion, it is essential that public 
opinion should be enlightened. 

As a very important source of strength and security, cherish pub- 
lic credit. One method of preserving it is to use it as sparingly as 
possible, avoiding the accumulation of debt, not only by shunning 
occasions of expense, but by vigorous exertions in time of peace to 
discharge the debts which unavoidable wars may have occasioned. 

The great rule of conduct for us, in regard to foreign nations, is 
in extending our commercial relations, to have with them as little 
political connection as possible. So far as we have already formed 
engagements, let them be fulfilled wnth perfect good faith. Here 
let us stop. It is our true policy to steer clear of permanent alli- 
ances with any portion of the foreign world. 

Though, in reviewing the incidents of my administration, I am 
unconscious of intentional errors, I am nevertheless too sensible of 
my defects not to think it probable that I may have committed many 
errors. Whatever they may be, I fervently beseech the Almighty 
to avert or mitigate the evils to which they may tend. I shall also 
carry with me the hope that my country will never cease to view 
them with indulgence ; and that, after forty-five years of my life 
dedicated to its service with an upright zeal, the faults of incompe- 
tent abilities will be consigned to oblivion, as myself must soon be 
to the mansions of rest. Relying on its kindness, and actuated by 
that fervent love towards it which is so natural to a man who views 
in it the native soil of himself and his progenitors for several gener- 
ations, I anticipate with pleasing expectation that retreat in which 
I promise myself to realize the sweet enjoyment of partaking, in the 
midst of my fellow citizens, the benign influence of good laws under 
a free government — the ever favorite object of my heart, and the 
happy reward, as I trust, of our mutual cares, labors, and dangers. 

G. Washington. 

United States, 17th September, 1796. 

[The above is but a small portion of this celebrated address, and 
has been abbreviated with the purpose of enabling the pupil to un- 
derstand something of Washington's advice to him.] 



PRONOUNCING INDEX 

Note. — The references are to Sections, not to pages. 

St. and /^ori are considered parts of the reference name; lA' and r'^« are not. Thus, 
look for St. Louis under the letter S; for Fort Sumter under F; for de Grasse under G; for 
von Steuben under S. 

The pronunciation is indicated in all fairly doubtful cases, and the characters which indi- 
cate it have been made as few and simple as possible. Pronounce a as in tnate, e as in 
mete, I as in mite, o as in »toie, u as in mute ; :1 as in bag, e as in beg, I as in big, o as in 
bog, \\ as in bug: a with the obscure sound of a in idea; ah as a vn/ather: aw as in saw: 
ow as in coiu: oo as in foot: ch as in chamber: g always hard, as \n get, j being used for 
the soft sound of g. Italic f is silent, but shows that the vowel preceding it in the same 
syllable is long. In French names, the capital letters H and R are to be pronounced more 
forcibly than we are accustomed to pronounce them in English. An(g) is the French nasal 
sound; it is uttered very much as spelled, except tliat it stops before the sound of ng is quite 
completed Letters not mentioned here, or unmarked, are to be pronounced as they would 
be in an English word. 



Abolitionists, their first appearance, 
462; charged with instigating negro 
insurrection, 462; their use of the 
mails, 492; attacks on them, 493; 
their political action, 494, 515, 547; 
their increase in numbers, 556; their 
final success, 66g, 757. 

Acadia (a-ka'di-a), its settlement by 
de Monts, 19; conquest by the Eng- 
lish, 71, 146. 

Acquisitions of territory, 544; in 
square miles, yj^. 

Adams, C. F., nominated for Vice- 
President, 548. 

Adams, John, a Massachusetts leader 
169; in the second Continental Con 
gress, 192; connection with the Dec 
laration of Independence, 206, 432 
elected Vice-President, 287, 304 
President, 311; his defeat in 1800 
323; his death, 432; his career, 439 

Adams, John Quincy, Secretary oi 
State, 412; elected President, 427 
connection with the American sys 
tem, 434; defeated in 1828, 438 
his career, 439; connection with the 
Abolitionists, 558. 

Adams, Samuel, a Massachusetts 
leader, 169; in the second Con- 
tinental Congress, 192. 

Administration of Justice Act, 175. 

Africa, early exploration in, 4, 12. 

Agricultural machinery, its poor con- 
dition in 1790, 289; invention of the 
mowing and reaping machine, 338, 
448; modern condition, 594. 

Aguinaldo (ah-gwin-ahl'do), leader of 
the Philippine insurgents, 881; de- 
mands independence for Filipinos, 
900. 



Alabama (al-n-bah'mn) unsettled in 
1812, 394; admission, 419; seces- 
sion, 613; re-conquest. 727; read- 
mission, ydz. 
Alabama Claims, the, their origin, 

627, 672; their settlement, 776-7. 
Alabama, the, escape of, 672; work of, 
696; destroyed by the Kcarsarge, 
720; after-consequences, 776-7. 
.\Iargon (ah-laR'sont-) discovers the 

Colorado, 16. 
Alaska bought from Russia, 523, 773; 

Klondike gold-fields, 893. 
Albany (awrba-ni), N. Y., early 
Dutch settlement, no; called Fort 
Orange, 117; threatened by Bur- 
goyne, 219; connected with Buffalo 
by the Erie Canal, 424. 
Albany Plan of Lfnion, the, rejected 

by both crown and colonies, 145. 
Albemarle (al-be-marl') Colony, the, 
a Virginian settleinent in North 
Carolina, 93. 
Albemarle Sound, N. C, limit of the 

Cabot voyage, 10. 
Albemarle, the, svtnk by a torpedo, 716. 
Alert, the, captured by the Essex, 366. 
Alger, Russell A., Secretary of War, 

869; resigns, 898. 
Algiers (al-jeerz'), one of the Barbary 
States, 341; compelled to seize pi- 
racy, 404. 
Algonquins (al-gon'kwinz), an Indian 

race, 3. 
Alien Laws, the, their passage, 321. 
Alleghany (al'le-ga-ni) Mountains, 
the, their location, 116; serve as a 
western boundary to the English 
colonies, 13s, 2y2; passed by emi- 
gration after 1790, 291. 

577 



578 



PRONOUNCING INDEX 



t^" The references are to Sections, not to pages. 



Allen, Chas. H., governor of Porto 
Rico, 903. 

Allen, Ethan, captures Ticonderoga, 
199. 

Allen, Capt. VV. H., captured in the 
Argus, 372. 

Altamaha (al-ta-ma-haw') River, the, 
Oglethorpe's battle near, 106. 

Alton, 111., riot at, 493. 

Ambrister (am'bris-ter), Robert C, 
executed by Jackson, 414. 

Amendments to the Constitution, how 
made, 284; object of the first 
ten Amendments, 286; adoption 
of the first ten Amendments, 
297; adoption of the 12th Amend- 
ment, 295, 222; of the 13th Amend- 
ment, 757; of the 14th Amend- 
ment, 763; of the 15th Amendment, 
789. 

America, origin of the name, 8. 

America, the, presented to France, 
243- 

American Party, the, its origin, 572; 
its defeat and disappearance, 582. 

American System, the: Clay and 
Adams unite protective tariff and 
internal improvements under this 
title, 434; opposed by the South, 
435; by Jackson, 470; adopted by the 
Whigs, 471 ; overthrown until 1861 
(see Protection), 521. 

Anaesthetics, their use in surgery, 517. 

Anarchists, 829. 

Anderson, Major Robert, in com- 
mand at Fort Sumter, 617. 

Andersonville, Ga., prison, 725. 

Andre (an'dril), Major John, captured 
and executed as a spy, 238. 

Andros (an'dros). Sir Edmund, his 
proceedings at Hartford, 61 ; object 
of his appointment as governor of 
New England, 70; his removal, 70; 
appointed governor of Virginia, 70. 

Anglo-American alliance, 887. 

Anglo-American commission, 887. 

Anglo-American league, 887. 

Annapolis (an-nap'o-lis), Md., found- 
ed, 86; Washington surrenders his 
commission at, 264; first attempt to 
hold a Federal Convention at, 278; 
establishment of the Naval School 
at, 519- 

Annapolis, N. S., capture of, 72. 

Anne, Queen, 71. 

Anthracite coal discovered in Penn- 
sylvania in 1791, 338, note; shipped 
to Philadelphia in 1806, 338; little 
used until 1830, 338, note; used on 
railroads and steamboats about 1835, 
446; general use, 511. 

Antietam (an-te'tnm), battle of, 666. 

Anti-Federal Party, the, its origin, 
285; defeat and disappearance, 303. 

Anti-imperialists, 905. 

Anti-Masons, their origin. 472. 

Anti-Nebraska Men, the first name of 
the Republican Party of 1856, 576. 

Anti-renters, their purposes, 514. 



Antislavery Society, the, its origin, 
462 (see Abolitionists). 

Anti-trust agitation, 891. 

Appomattox (ap-po-mat'tocks) River, 
the, Lee's line of retreat, 733; Court- 
house, Lee's surrender at, y:}:^. 

Arabian, the, the first American loco- 
motive, 443, note. 

Arbitration, the treaty, 867; proposals 
of the Hague conference ratified, 
897. 

Arbuthnot (ar'buth-not), Alexander, 
executed by Jackson, 414. 

Argus, the, her successful cruise, 372; 
captured by the Pelican, 372. 

Arkansas (ar'kan-saw) admission, 454; 
secession, 626; re-conquest, 683; 
readmission, 762; disorders in, 790. 

Arkansas, the, captured by the Union 
fleet, 655. 

Army, th^: formation of an American 
army, 191; difficulties in the way, 
197; flag and uniform, 197; dis 
banded without just treatment, 264 
government of the army, 281; com 
mand-in-chief, 282; a new army be 
gun in 1798, 319; inefficiency of the 
army in 1812, 352; reorganization in 

1813, 364; success of the army in 

1814, 391; the army of the South- 
west, 395; capture of the regular 
army in the South, 616; formation 
of a volunteer army, 629; support 
by Congress, 631 ; care of the army, 
692; reinforcement of the, 693, 722; 
numbers of the army, 746; losses, 
747; disbandment of the army, 752; 
formation of the volunteer army of 
1898, 880. 

Arnold, Benedict, his march through 
Maine and retreat from Quebec, 200; 
beats the British back from Fort 
Schuyler, 220; his daring at Sara- 
toga, 223; his treason, 238; ravages 
Virginia, 252; butchers the garrison 
at New London, 259. 

Arthur, Chester A., elected Vice- 
President, 817; succeeds to the 
presidency at Garfield's death, 818. 

Articles of Association put forth by 
the Continental Congress, 177. 

Articles of Confederation ratified by 
the States, 270; found to be worth- 
less, 275; the impossibility of 
amending them, 277; succeeded by 
the Constitution, 287. 

Assemblies the real governing power 
of the colonies, 36, 130, 162; that 
of Virginia the first, 76; take sides 
against the Parliament, 162, 172; the 
people side with the assemblies, 172. 

Astor Library, 595. 

Atlanta. Ga., not on the map in 1830, 
451; held by Johnston, 697, 706; 
captured by Sherman, 709; burned 
by Sherman, 712; holds a Cottoii 
Exposition, S24. 

Atlanta, the. destroyed by the Wee- 
hawkcn, 688. 



PRONOUNCING INDEX 



579 



f"-*y' The references are to Sections, not to pages. 



Atlantic telegraph, the, successfully 
laid, 772. 

Attorney-General, the office of, estab- 
lished, 298. 

Augusta (aw-gus't(7), Ga., founded, 
104; captured by the British. J44. 

Austria, the Koszta dispute with, 568. 

Avon, the, taken by the Wasp, 374. 

Ayllon (ilr-yon^'). 9- 

Azores (a-zorz') Islands, the, Gos- 
nold's route by, 24; Reid's battle 
in, 376. 

/ 

P.ACON, Nathaniel, his rebellion and 
death, 8j. 

Bahama (ba-ha'ma) Islands, the, dis- 
covered by Columbus, 6. 

Bainbridge (bani^'brij), Capt. William, 
in command of the Constitution, x6%. 

Baker, E. D., killed at Ball's Bluff, 
634, note. 

Ballot reform, 833. 

Ball's Bluff, battle of, 634. 

Baltimore (bawrti-mon'). Lord, found- 
er of Maryland, 85. 

Baltimore, Md., founded, 86; seat of 
Congress in 1776, 211; beats off the 
British, 387; riot in, 623. 

Bancroft, George, the historian, 458. 

Bank of the United States, first one 
chartered, 300; charter expires, 408; 
second chartered, 408; Jackson at- 
tacks it, 468; vetoes the renewal of 
the charter, 469; charter expires, 
469; the Whigs support the bank, 
471 ; attempt to charter a third, 
501. 

Banks, wildcat, 484. 

Banks, Gen. Nathaniel P., beaten by 
Jackson, 662; in command in Lou- 
isiana, 679; fails in his Red River 
expedition, 715. 

Barbadoes (bar-ba'doz), colonists from 
Barbadoes in Carolina, 93. 

Barbary States, the, professional pi- 
rates, 341; beaten into peace by the 
American navy, 342; brought to 
terms, 404. 

Barclay, Capt. R. II., commands the 
I'ritish fleet on Lake Erie. 381. 

Baton Rouge (bat'n roozh). La., 655. 

Baum (bowm), Lieut. -Col., com- 
mands the British at Bennington, 
220. 

Beauregard (bo-re-gard'), Gen. P. G. 
T., commands at Manassas Junc- 
tion, 632; at Corinth, 643. 

Beef scandal, the, 899. 

Behaim's globe, 4, note. 

Bell, John, nominated for the presi- 
dency, 608. 

Bemis Heights, battle of, 222. 

Bennington, battle of, 220. 

Bering Sea seal fisheries, 848. 

Berkeley (berk'li), Gov. William, sup- 
presses Bacon's rebellion, 82. 

Berkeley, Lord John, one of the pro- 
prietors of New Jersey, 118. 

Berlin Decree of Napoleon, 343. 



Berlin treaty, the, regarding Samoa, 
894. 

Bidwell, Jolm, nominated for Presi- 
dent, 854. 

Big Bethel, skirmish of, 629, note. 

Big Horn River, Indian battle at, 785. 

Biloxi (be-loks'i). Miss., settled, 138. 

Bimetallism, the paramount issue in 
the election of 1896, 865; failure of 
international commission, 872; in 
1900, 906. 

Black Hawk, Us • -ar against the 
whites, 463. 

Bladensburgh (bla'dnz-burg), battle 
of, 386. 

Blaine, James Gillespie, nominated 
for President, 826; defeated, 826. 

B'air, l^rancis P., nominated for Vice- 
President, but defeated, 768. 

Blakely (blake'li), Capt. J., in com- 
mand of the H'asp, 374. 

Blanco (blah'n-co), Ramon (rah'- 
mon), in Cuba, 874. 

Bland-Allison Act, the, 812. 

Blockade (of 1813), 371, 383; (of 1S61), 
625, 650; of Cuba, 882. 

Bonaparte, Napoleon, makes peace 
with the United States, 320; sells 
Louisiana to the United States, 334; 
forbids American commerce with 
Europe, 343; fraudulently arrays 
the United States against CJreat 
Britain, 349; is sent to Elba, 397. 

Bonds, 161, 814, 825, 857, 886. 

Bonhommc Richard (bo-nom're-shaR'), 
the, captures the Scrapis, 242. 

Boone, Daniel, settles in Kentucky, 
157, note. 

Booth, John Wilkes, the murderer of 
President Lincoln, 737. 

Border States, the, their course of ac- 
tion, 626. 

Boston, Mass., founded, 49; rebel- 
lious proceedings in, 171, 174; the 
attempt to punish tliem, 175; siege 
of, 183; evacuation of, 19S; popu- 
lation in 1790, 288; great fire in, 
784; 

Boston Massacre, the, 171. 

Boston Port Act, the, 175. 

P>oston Tea-party, the, 174. 

Boundaries, colonial and State, west- 
ern boundary at first supposed to be 
the Pacific Ocean, 135; after 1763 
the Mississippi, 271; really the Al- 
leghanies, 272; western boundaries 
fixed, 273. 

Boundaries, LTnited States, in 1783, 
263; the northeast boundary, 497; 
the northern boundary, 503; the 
northwest boundary, 504, 523, 777; 
the southwest boundary, 524; 
changes produced by the Mexican 
war, 528, 544 (see Acquisitions of 
Territory). 

Bowling (bolc'ing) Green, Ky., occu- 
pied by the Confederates, 639. 

Boxer, the, captured by the Enter- 
prise, 370. 



580 PRONOUNCING INDEX 

jajg" The references are to Sections, not to pages. 



Braddock, General William, defeated 
and killed near Fort Duquesne, 146. 
Bradford, William, a Massachusetts 
leader. 47. 

Bragg, Gen. Braxton, his raid into 
Kentucky, 644; fights a battle at 
Murfreesboro, 645; evacuates Chat- 
tanooga, 685; fights at Chicka- 
mauga, 685; besieges Chattanooga, 
686; beaten back to Dalton by 
Grant, and removed, 687. 

Brandywine Creek, battle on, 216. 

Brant, Joseph, an Indian chief in the 
British service, 232. 

Brazil (bra-zeel'), 720. 

Breckinridge, John C, elected Vice- 
President, 582; defeated for the 
presidency, 608. 

Breed's Hill, battle on, 194. 

Breton (bret'n). Cape, discovered by 
Cabot, 10; occupied by the French, 
72; by the English, 148, 154. 

Breyman (bra'man). Col., in com- 
mand of the British in the second 
fight at Bennington, 220. 

Briar Creek, Ga., skirmish at, 245. 

Bridges, early lack of, 133, 290; mod- 
ern suspension, 566. 

Bridgewater, battle of, 392. 

Bristol, R. I., destroyed by the Brit- 
ish, 203. 

Brock, Gen. Isaac, captures Detroit 
and the American garrison, 356. 

Broke, Capt. P. V., in command of 
the SIuiiDwn, 372. 

Brooke, Gen. John R., Governor-Gen- 
eral of Cuba, 902; of Porto Rico, 
903; succeeded by Gen. Henry, 903. 

Brooklyn, N. Y., a ferry station, 117; 
captured by the British, 209. 

Brooks, John A., nominated for Vice- 
President, 840, note. 

Brooks, P. S., assaults Sumner, 581 

Broviin, B. Gratz, 796. 

Brown, Gen. Jacob, at Sackett's Har- 
bor, 362, note; reorganizes the army, 
364; at Chippewa, 392; wounded, 
392; returns to command, 393. 

Brown, John, his raid on Harper's 
Ferry and execution, 604. 

Brownsville, Tex., captured by Tay- 
lor, 524. 

Brown University, foundation of, 187. 

Bryan, Wm. J., nominated for Presi- 
dent and defeated, 865; renomi- 
nated, 906. 

Bryant Park, N. Y., 564. 

Bryant, William Cullen, 457. 

Buccaneers in New York, 114. 

Buchanan (bfik-an'an), James, elected 
President, 582. 

Buchanan, Franklin, in command of 
the Merrimac and Tennessee, 718. 

Buckner, Gen. S. B., nominated for 
Vice-President, 865. 

Buel (bu'el). Gen. Don Carlos, in 
command in Kentucky, 639; rein- 
forces Grant, 642; fights a battle at 
Perryville, 644. 



Buena Vista (bwa'nah vees'tah), bat- 
tle of, 532-3. 

Buffalo, N. Y., not on the map in 
1812, 354; benefited by the War of 
1812, 405; by the Erie Canal, 424. 

Bull Run, battle of, 632. 

Piull Run, second battle of, 664. 

Bunker Hill, battle of, 194-6. 

Burgoyne (bur-goin'). Gen. John, ar- 
rives at Boston, 194; organizes an 
army in Canada for the invasion of 
New York, 218; surrenders to 
Gates at Saratoga, 222. 

Burke, Edmund, champions the cause' 
of the colonies, 202. 

Burlington, N. J., settlement of, 119. 

Burnside, Gen. Ambrose E., in com- 
mand of the Army of the Potomac, 
666; defeated at Fredericksburgh, 
667; in command at Knoxville, 686. 

Burr, Aaron, elected Vice-President, 
323; shoots Hamilton, 332; not re- 
elected Vice-President, 339; his 
Mississippi expedition, 340. 

Burrows, Lieut. W., in command of 
the Enterprise, 370. 

Butler, Gen. Benj. F., in command at 
Hatteras Inlet, 636; at New Orleans, 
654; removed, 679; sent to attack 
Petersbi:rgh, 700; " bottled up," 
703; his Fort Fisher expedition, 
716; his treatment of runaway 
slaves, 754, note; nominated for 
President, bvit defeated, 826, note. 

Butler, John, a Tory leader, 232. 

Butler, Wm. Orlando, nominated for 
Vice-President, 548. 

Cabal, the Conway, 223. 

Cabinet, the, meaning of the term, 
296. 

Cabots (kab'ots), the, their discover- 
ies, 10. 

Cabrillo (kah-breel'yo), a Spanish ex- 
plorer, 15. 

Cairo (kl'ro), 111., occupied by Grant, 
639- 

Calhoun (kal-hoon'), John C, Sec- 
retary of War, 412; elected Vice- 
President, 427; re-elected, 438; not 
re-elected Vice-President, 473; his 
doctrine of nullification, 476; his 
death, 558. 

California, early explorations in, 13; 
belongs to Mexico, 528; seized by 
the American forces, 529; trans- 
ferred to the United States, 543; 
discovery of gold in, 549; disor- 
ders in, 553; difficulties of admis- 
sion, 553; admission as a State, 555. 

Calvert, Cecil (sis'il kol'vcrt). re- 
ceives a patent for the colony of 
Maryland, 85. 

Calvert. Sir George, plans a colony 
in America, 85. 

Calvert, Leonard, leads the settle- 
ment of Maryland, 86. 

Cambridge, Mass., settlement of, 49; 
Harvard College founded at, 75; 



PRONOUNCING INDEX 581 

The references are to Sections, not to pages. 



Cambridge — Continued. 
headquarters of the American army, 
197- 

Camden, battle of, 249. 
Canada, settled by the French, 19, 
30; early explorations by the 
French, 136; conquered by the 
British, 15 j; transferred to Great 
Britain, 154; attacked by the Ameri- 
can forces, 199; the Americans are 
driven out of it, 200; receives the 
Tories at the close of the Revolu- 
tion, j66; unsuccessful invasions of 
Canada by the American forces, 
357. 36-^-3; battles in, 39-;-3 ; Patriot 
War, 496; Confederate agents in, 
724; Fenian attack on, 771; fisher- 
ies dispute with, 777. 834. 

Canals, in New England, 312; na- 
tional provision for, 422, 434; the 
Erie canal, 424; further canal con- 
struction by the States, 453, 489; 
the Panama canal, 834; the Nicara- 
gua canal, 895-6, 906. 

Canary Islands, the, 6. 

Caney (ka-nay'), 882. 

Canonicus (ka-non'i-kus), an Indian 
chief, 62. 

Cape X'erde Islands, the, 882. 

Capital of the United States, at Phila- 
delphia, 299; at Washington, 324. 

Carolina becomes a royal colony, 35; 
named for Charles IX. of France 
and Charles II. of England, 90. 

" Carpet-bagger," meaning of the 
term, 789, note. 

Carteret (kar-ter-et'). Sir George, one 
of the proprietors of New Jersey, 118. 

Cartier, Jacques (zhak kaR't-ya), dis- 
covers the St. Lawrence, 11; makes 
an unsuccessful settlement at 
Quebec, 18. 

Cass, Lewis, nominated for President, 
but defeated, 548. 

Castine (kas-teen'), Me., capture of 
an American fleet at, 243. 

Catholics, Roman, formation of a col- 
ony for, 85; ill-treatment of the 
Roman Catholics in Maryland, 88. 

Cavaliers, a name applied to the 
king's friends, 41. 

Cavite (ka-ve-ta'), 88i. 

Cayugas (ka-yoo'g(7z), an Indian tribe 
of New York, 3. 

Cebu (sa-boo'), 900. 

Cedar Creek, battle of, 705. 

Cemeteries, National, 747. 

Census, (first, 1790,) 313; (second, 
1800,) 324; (third. 1810,) 353; 
(fourth, 1820,) 421; (fifth, 1830,) 452; 
(sixth, 1840,) 490; (seventh, 1850,) 
561; (eighth, :86o,) 588; (ninth, 
1870,) 782; (tenth, 1880,) 804, note; 
(eleventh, 1890,) 847. 

Centennial anniversary of American 
independence, 787. 

Central Pacific Railway, 890. 

Central Park, opening of, 595. 

Cerro Gordo (seR'Ro goR'do), battle 
of, 536- 



Cervera (thar-va'ra). Admiral, 882. 

Chad's Ford, battle of, 216. 

Champlain, Lake, discovery of, 136; 
importance of, 378; battle of, 382. 

Champlain (sham-plane), Samuel de, 
a French explorer, 19; discovers 
Lake Champlain, 136. 

Chancellorsville, battle of, 674. 

Chapultepec (chah-pool'ta-pek), bat- 
tle of, 541. 

Charles I., King, 40, 41. 

Charles II., King, 42. 

Charleston, Mass., settlement of, 48; 
destruction of the town by the 
British, 196. 

Charleston, S. C, settlement of, 97; 
attacked by the Spaniards, loi ; by 
the British, 203; captured by the 
British, 247; retained bv the British 
uritil the close of the Revolutionary 
V\'ar, 254, 263; evacuated by the 
British, 264; importance in 1790, 
288; nullification as applied to 
Charleston harbor, 476-7; decay of 
its commerce, 596; United States 
forces in Charleston harbor, 617; 
importance of Charleston to the 
Confederates, 652; evacuated by 
the Confederates, 728-9. 

Charlottesville, Va., occupied by 
Sheridan, 731. 

Charters given by the king to the 
colonies, 35. 

Charter Oak, 61. 

Chase, Salmon P., a Republican Sena- 
tor, 558. 

Chasseur (shas-sur'), the, an Ameri- 
can privateer, 376. 

Chattahoochee (chat - Ui - hoo'chee) 
River, the, crossed by Johnston and 
Sherman, 706. 

Chattanooga (chat-ta-noo'ga), Tenn., 
importance of, 685; evacuated by 
the Confederates, 685; besieged by 
the Confederates, 686-7. 

Chauncey (chan'si). Commodore 
Isaac, in command on Lake On- 
tario, 380. 

Cherbourg (sharc-booR'g), sea-battle 
off, 720. 

Cherokees (cher'o-keez), an Indian 
tribe, 3; difficulties with the State 
of Georgia, 431; removal, 463. 

Cherry Valley, N. Y., destroyed by 

Tories and Indians, 232. 
Cherub, the, aids in capturing the 
Essex, 373. 

Chesapeake (ches'n-peek) Bay, en- 
tered by Captain Newport, 31 ; im- 
portance to commerce, 89; used by 
Howe as a road to Philadelphia, 
215; by Washington as a road to 
Yorktown, 257; arrival of the 
French fleet in, 258; used by the 
British as a naval station, 383. 
Chesapeake, the, insulted by a British 
war- vessel, 344; captured by the 
Shannon, 372. 
Chester, Pa., settlement of, 123. 

Chicago (shi-kaw'go), 111., sudden rise 



582 PRONOUNCING INDEX 

t^W" The references are to Sections, not to pages. 



Chicago — Continued. 
of the place, 449; not on the maps 
in 1830, 451, 589; great fire in, 784 
railroad riots in, 806; anarchist 
riots, 829; World's Fair, 845; rail 
road strike, 858; trust conference 
891. 

Chickahominy (chik-a-hom'in-i) Riv 
er, the, its interference with Mc 
Clellan's plan of campaign, 659-60. 

Chickamauga (chik-a-maw'ga), battle 
of, 685; rendezvous in war with 
Spain, 880. 

Chickasaws (chik'a-sawz), Indian 
tribe, 3. 

Chihuahua (che-wah'wah), Mex., oc- 
cupied by Doniphan, 529, 531. 

Chillicothe (chil-ll-koth'e), O., 314. 

Chinese immigration, 815, 829, 851. 

Chippewa (chip'pe-waw), battle of, 392. 

Choctaws (chok'tawz), an Indian 
tribe, 3. 

Chouteau, Pierre (pe-arc' shoo-to'), 
his long life in St. Louis, 155, note. 

Christina (kris-tee'na), Swedish set- 
tlement at, 29. 

Chrysler's (kris'ler's) Farm, battle 
of, 363. 

Church, Benjamin, a Plymouth sol- 
dier, 69. 

Churubusco (choo-roo-boos'ko), bat- 
tle of, 539. 

Cincinnati (sin-sin-nah'tl), O., settle- 
ment of, 292; first newspaper in, 
314; riots in, 823. 

Cities in 1790, 288; in 1830, 450; in 
i860, 595. 

Civil Service, the, Jackson s degrada- 
tion of it, 467; Civil Service law 
passed, 467; condition under Gar- 
field, 819; under Cleveland, 864; 
under McKinley, 892, 906. 

Clarendon Colony, the, comes from 
Barbadoes to North Carolina, 93; 
rem.oves to South Carolina, 97. 

Clarke, Gen. George Rogers, conquers 
Illinois for Virginia, 235. 

Clay, Henry, leader of the House, 
412; aids the Missouri Cornpro- 
mise, 418; nominated for President 
in 1824, but defeated, 427; a lead- 
ing supporter of the " American 
System," 434; his rank as an ora- 
tor, 459; in politics, 471; nominated 
for President in 1832, but defeated, 
473; nominated for President in 
1844, but defeated, 515; aids the 
Compromise of 1850, 554; death, 
558- 

Clayton-Bulwer treaty, the, 896. 

Clearing-house, the, 56s. 

Clermont, the, 337. 

Cleveland, Graver, nominated and 
elected President, 826, 828; his first 
annual message, 837; renominated 
and defeated, 840; re-elected, 854; 
Venezuelan message, 861; extends 
the merit system, 864; negotiates 
the arbitration treaty, 867. 

Cleveland, O., settlement, 314. 



Clinton, Gen. Sir Henry, lands at 
Boston, 194; fails to relieve Bur- 
goyne, 222; succeeds Howe at Phil- 
adelphia, 228; retreats to New 
York City, fighting at Monmouth 
Court-house, 228; captures Charles- 
ton, 247; returns to New York 
City, 248; orders Cornvvallis to 
Yorktown, 255; is outgeneralled by 
Washington, 257; orders the attack 
on New London, 259. 

Clinton, DeWitt, nominated for Presi- 
dent, but defeated, 351; pushes 
through the construction of the Erie 
Canal, 424. 

Clinton, George, elected Vice-Presi- 
dent, 339; re-elected, 346. 

Coal. See Anthracite. 

Coast Survey, 455. 

Cockburn (ko'burn). Admiral, plun- . 
ders the Atlantic coast, 388. 

Cold Harbor, battle of, 702, 706. 

Colfax, Schuyler, elected Vice-Presi- 
dent, 768. 

Colleges, the first six, 158, note; the 
next three, 187; in 1830, 455; in 
i860, 593. 

Collins, Capt. N. B., in command of 
the H'acliusett, 720. 

Colonization, 26. 

Colorado, discovery of gold in, 590; 
admission, 786. 

" Color line," 764. 

Columbia College, 158. 

Columbia River, discovered by an 
American vessel, 335; claimed as a 
southwest boundary for British 
America, 523. 

Columbia, S. C, occupied by the 
L^nion forces and burned, 728. 

Columbia, the, makes the first Ameri- 
can voyage around the world, 312. 

Columbus, Christopher, his efforts to 
accomplish his great design, 5; his 
discovery of land across the At- 
lantic, 6; subsequent voyages and 
death, 8. 

Commerce, early commerce, 131; the 
attempt of Parliament to regulate 
by the Navigation Acts, 67; fail- 
ure of the Navigation Acts, 163; 
commercial taxation by Parliament, 
168; commercial resistance, 177 (see 
Revolution, American); commerce 
under the Confederation, 275; under 
the Constitution, 281; English in- 
terferences with American com- 
merce, 309, 343; increase of Ameri- 
can commerce, 312, m; French 
interferences with American com- 
merce, 318; the Barbary States' 
interferences with American com- 
merce, 341; the embargo policy 
of prohibiting commerce, 345;^ its 
failure, 349; war against Great 
Britain, 351; decay of conimerce in 
1815, and immediate revival, 406; 
French injuries paid for, 464; com- 
merce in i860, 588; injury to com- 



PRONOUNCING INDEX 



583 



The references are to Sections, not to pages. 



Commerce — Continued. 
merce by Confederate privateering, 
672, 696, 720; revival of commerce, 
780; interstate, 83-'. 

Commission, Electoral, 800-2. 

Commission, Interstate Commerce, 
832. 

Commission, Tariff, 825. 

Committees of Correspondence, 179. 

Common schools. See Public schools. 

" Common Sense," title of Paine's 
pamphlet in favor of independence, 
204. 

Commons, House of, claims taxing 
power in England, 40; in the col- 
onies, 160 (see Parliament). 

Commonwealth, the English, 41. 

Compromises, the Missouri Compro- 
mise passed, 418; unsuccessful at- 
tempt to apply its principle to the 
Mexican acquisition, 545; results 
of the Compromise, 559; the Mis- 
souri Compromise repealed, 575-6; 
the repeal sustained by the Supreme 
Court, 599-600; the tariff compro- 
mise of 1833, 478; the Compromise 
of 1850, 555. 

Concessions, the, the charter of New 
Jersey, 120. 

Concord (kong'kurd), Mass., 180-1. 

Confederate States, the, organized in 
1861, 614; declares war against the 
United States, 625; enlarged by new 
secessions, 628; its difficulties, 637; 
progress of the war, 740-5; distress 
within the Confederacy, 668, 690, 
719, 721; downfall of the Confeder- 
acy. 733' its armed forces, 746; 
loss in men, 747; in money, 748. 

Confederation, The. See Articles of 
Confederation. 

Confirmation by the Senate, 282^ 

Congress of the United States, 
powers, 281-3; first meets and counts 
the electoral votes, 294; organizes 
the government by legislation, 297 
proposes twelve Amendments, 297 
character of the laws passed, 298 
charters the first Bank of the United 
States, 300; begins taxation by ex- 
cise, 299, 307; attitude towards sla- 
very, 301 ; authorizes hostilities 
against France, 319; passes the 
Alien and Sedition laws, 321 ; comes 
under the control of the Republi- 
cans, 331; passes the Embargo Act 
(see Commerce), 345; passes the 
Non-Intercourse Act, 346; revives 
the Non-Intercourse Act against 
Great Britain, 349; declares war 
against Great Britain, 351; be- 
comes more disposed to favor the 
navy, 369; charters the second 
Bank of the United States, 408; 
the two sections in Congress, 416, 
435. 508; passes the Missouri Com- 
promise, 418; receives Lafayette, 
421; appropriates money for in- 
ternal improvements, 422; begins 



Congress — Continued. 
the National Road, 423; adopts a 
policy of Protection, 426; carries it 
further, 434; divides surplus reve- 
nue among the States, 453; as- 
serted influence of the Bank on 
Congress, 468; renews charter of 
the Bank, but is defeated by the 
veto, 469; Congress and Protection, 
470, 474; passes Compromise Tariff 
of 1833, 490; special session of 1837, 
478; passes Sub-Treasury law, 488; 
attempt to suppress antislavery 
petitions to Congress, 494; special 
session of 1841, 500; passes a third 
Bank charter, but is defeated by the 
veto, 501 ; quarrels with the Presi- 
dent, 501; passes the Tariff of 1842, 
501; passes the resolution annexing 
Texas, 516; abandons Protection 
and passes a revenue tariff, 521 ; de- 
clares war against Mexico, 527; dis- 
cusses the Wilmot Proviso, 546; 
and the admission of California, 
553; passes the Compromise of 1850, 
554-5; new leaders appear in Con- 
gress, 558; Congress orders surveys 
for a Pacific Railroad, 562; repeals 
the Missouri Compromise by pass- 
ing the Kansas-Nebraska Act, 574; 
the Republican party appears in 
Congress, 576; Congress discusses 
Kansas affairs, 580; its relations to 
the Supreme Court, 599; remains 
inactive through the secession win- 
ter, 618; special session of i86i 
votes men and money for the war, 
631; orders the issue of bonds and 
legal-tender paper money in 1862, 
670; establishes a national banking 
system in 1863, 670; returns to the 
protective system, 691 ; orders a 
draft, 693; passes the 13th Amend- 
ment, 756; refuses to admit mem- 
bers from the seceding States, 758; 
is controlled by a two-thirds Re- 
publican majority, 759; adopts a 
plan of reconstruction, 760-1; read- 
mits the reconstructed States, 762; 
passes the 14th Amendment, 763; 
quarrels with the President, 765; 
passes the Tenure of Office Act, 
766; assists the Pacific Railroad, 
783; passes the 15th Amendment, 
789; investigates the Credit Mobi- 
lier scandals, 794; asserts a right to 
decide disputes about electoral 
votes, 799; passes the Electoral 
Commission Act, 800; demonetizes 
silver, 811; remonetizes silver, 812; 
orders specie payments to be re- 
sumed, 813; engages in conflicts 
with the President, 816; passes the 
Civil Service Reform Act, 819; fails 
to suppress polygamy, 822; orders 
appointment of a Tariff Commis- 
sion, 825; demonetizes silver, 856; 
passes the Wilson bill, 859; passes 
the Dingley bill, 870; declares war 



584 



PRONOUNCING INDEX 



The references are to Sections, not to pages. 



Congress — Continued. 
against Spain, 8-g; passes the War 
Revenue Act, 886; passes a joint 
resolution annexing Hawaii, 888; 
authorizes an appropriation for in- 
vestigation of Nicaragua canal 
routes, 895; establishes a form of 
government for Porto Rico, 903; 
passes the Porto Rican Tariff Act, 
904. 

Connecticut (kon-net'i-kut), part of 
the Plymouth grant, 33; history, 57; 
its western claims, 271; they are 
transferred to the United States, 
273. 

Constellation, the, captures L'lnstir- 
genie, 319. 

Constitution, the, chased by the Brit- 
ish, 366; captures the Guerriere, 
367; the Java, 368; the Cyane and 
Levant, 375. 

Constitution of the United States, its 
formation, 279; its terms, 280-4; its 
ratification, 286; its inauguration, 
294 (see Amendments). 

" Continental," meaning of the term, 
176, note I, 233. 

Continental Congress, first meeting, 
176-7; second meeting, 191-3; resists 
Parliament by force, 191 ; recom- 
mends the colonies to become 
States, 204; adopts the Declaration 
of Independence, 205; retires to 
Baltimore, 211; to Lancaster and 
York, 217; issues paper money, 
233; begins to lose public respect, 
234; has difficulties with the army, 
239; fails to form a navy, 241; its 
work in the war, 269; gives way to 
the Confederation, 270 (see Articles 
of Confederation). 

Contract Labor Act, 829. 

Contreras (kon-tra'rahs), battle of, 539. 

Convention, Federal, 279. 

Cooper, J. Fenimore, his literary 
work, 457. 

Copley, John Singleton, a painter, 
particularly excellent in portraits, 

Copper, in Connecticvit and New 
Jersey, 511; discovery of the Lake 
Superior copper region, 512. 

Corinth (kor'inth). Miss., captured by 
Halleck, 643; defended by CJrant, 646. 

Cornwallis (korn-wol'lis). Lord, in 
command of the British in New 
Jersey, 210; beaten at Trenton and 
Princeton, 212; in command in 
South Carolina, 248; defeats Gates 
at Camden, 249; chases Greene 
across North Carolina, 251; fights 
a drawn battle at (iuilford Court- 
house, 253; retires to Wilmington, 
253; moves north into Virginia, 255; 
caught at Yorktown by the French 
and Americans, 258; surrenders, 
261; results of the surrender, 262; 
centennial anniversary of the sur- 
render, 820. 



Coronado (ko-ro-nah'do), an early 
Spanish explorer, 16. 

Corpus Christi (kor'pus kris'ti), Tex., 
524- 

Cortereal (kor-ta-ra-ahl'), a Portu- 
guese sailor, 12. 

Cotton, John, a Massachusetts min- 
ister, 50. 

Cotton, little profit in its cultivation 
before 1793, 316; invention of the 
saw-gin by Whitney, 316; cotton 
in South Carolina, 99; cotton crop 
of i860, 588; " King Cotton," 597; 
importance of the cotton supply 
during the Civil War, 671; effect of 
the blockade, 690; cotton under free 
labor, 824. 

Courts, Federal, 283, 298. 

Cowpens (kow'penz), battle of the, 
251- 

Crawford, William H., Secretary of 
the Treasury, 412; nominated foi 
President, but defeated, 427. 

Credit Mobilier (kra'de mo-be'le-a), 
the construction company of the 
Pacific Railroad, 794. 

Creeks, an Indian tribe, 3; hostile to 
the United States, 394; make war, 
395; overthrown by Jackson, 396; 
effects on settlement, 405. 

Criminals, their extradition, 502. 

Croghan (kro'hon), Lieut. George, 
his defence of Fort Stephenson, 
360. 

Cromwell (krum'well), Oliver, Pro- 
tector of England, 41. 

Croton Aqueduct, 450. 

Crown Point, N. Y., held by the 
French, 146; taken by the British, 
ISO. 

Crystal Palace, the, 564. 

Cuba, attempts to obtain it from 
Spain, 570; the Ostend manifesto, 
570; the Virginius affair, 779; the 
revolt, 863; relations with the L^nited 
States grow acute, 873; refuses 
Spain's offer of autonomy, 874; pro- 
posed armistice, 878; military op- 
erations in, 882, 884; freed from 
Spanish sovereignty, 885; passes 
formally under the control of the 
LTnited States, 902; internal changes 
and improvements, 902; the Cuban 
army disbanded, 902; promised in- 
dependence by the Republican plat- 
form of 1900, 906. 

Cuban Junta, the, 876, 878. 

Cuban Relief Committee, the, 875. 

Cumberland Island, Ga., Cockburn's 
headquarters, 388. 

Cumberland, Md., 423. 

Cumberland, the, sunk by the Merri- 
mac, 650. 

Currency, Paper. See Paper Money 

Currency reform, 889. 

Cushing (koosh'ing), Lieut. Wm. B., 
blows up the Albemarle, 716. 

Custer, Gen. George A., killed by In- 
dians, 785. 



PRONOUNCING INDEX 
C^^ The references are to Sections, not to pages. 



585 



Cyane (sl'an^), the, captured by the 

Constitution, 375. 
Cyclones, 821. 

Dade's Massacre, 463. 

Daiquiri (diiy-ke-re'), 882. 

Dallas, battle of, 706. 

Dallas, George M., elected Vice- 
President, 515. 

Dalton (davvl'tun), Ga., held by John- 
ston, 697; taken by Sherman, 706. 

Dana, Richard H., an early American 
poet, 457. 

Danbury (dan'ber-ri). Conn., de- 
stroyed by the British, 214. 

Daniel, W'm., nominated for Vice- 
President, 826, note. 

Dare, Virginia, first child born of 
English parents in America, 23. 

Darien (da-ri-en'), Ga., 104. 

Dartmouth College founded, 187. 

Davenport (dftv'en-port), John, a 
founder of New Haven, 60. 

Davis, Gen. Geo. W., Governor-Gen- 
eral of Porto Rico, 903. 

Davis, Jefiferson, a Southern leader, 
558; President of the Confederate 
States, 614; removes Johnston, 708; 
is compelled to recall him, 728; 
captured by the United States, 732, 
note. 

Dayton, \Vm. L., nominated for 
Vice-President, 582. 

Deane (deen), Silas, envoy to France, 
224, note. 

Dearborn (deer'burn). Gen. Henry, in 
command in northeastern New 
York, 357; fails in an invasion of 
Canada, 362. 

Debt, imprisonment for, cruelty of 
the system, 288; its general aban- 
donment, 461. 

Debt of Great Britain, 265. 

Debt of the United States, hopeless- 
ness of paying it under the Con- 
federation, 275; provided for in 
1790, 299; nearly paid off in 1809, 333; 
anxiety of the Republicans to pay 
it off, 344; increase on account of 
the War of 1812, 407; paid off 
in 1835, 453; Civil War debt put 
into bonds and paper money, 670; 
amount at the end of the war, 748; 
promptness in beginning to pay it 
off, 769; interest rate reduced by 
refunding, 814; the general reduc- 
tion of the debt, 825, 857. 

Decatur (de-ka'tur). Commodore Ste- 
phen, burns the Philadelphia, 342; 
in command of the United States, 
368; forces the Barbary States to 
conclude peace without payment of 
tribute, 404. 

Declaration of Independence, its 
adoption, 205; its terms, 206; itb 
effect on France, 226; its author- 
ship, 432; its hundredth anniver- 
sary, 787. 

Delaware (del'a-warc), settled by the 



Delaware — Continued. 
Swedes, 29; taken by the Dutch, 29; 
taken by the English from the 
Dutch, 34; bought by Penn, 121; 
history, 128; its western boundary, 
271; a "small" State, 279; freedom 
from secessionists, 626; trusts in, 891. 

Delaware River, the, crossed by 
Washington, 210; obstructed by the 
Americans to defend Philadelphia, 
215- 

Democratic Party, the, known at tirst 
as the Republican Party (see Re- 
publican Party of 1792), 304, note; 
upholds state sovereignty, 328; 
often known as the Democratic 
Party after the War of 1812, 409; 
regularly called so after 1828, 437; 
supports Jackson, 438; defeated in 
1840, 498; successful in 1844, 515; 
gets control of the government and 
puts an end to Protection, 521 ; de- 
feated in 1848, 548; the only great 
party left entire by slavery, 560; 
successful in 1852, 563; how it was 
held together, 573; supports the 
Kansas-Nebraska Bill. 574; part of 
its Northern members go into the 
Republican Party (see Republican 
Party of 1846), 576; successful in 
1856, 582; Northern meinbers re- 
fuse to support the Dred Scott de- 
cision, 602; splits into two parts, 
608; defeated in i860, 609; opposes 
the management of the war, and ie 
defeated in 1864, 723; supports 
Johnson, 759; is defeated in 1868, 
768; adopts the Liberal Repviblican 
ticket in 1872, and is defeated, 796; 
its nominations in 1876, 797; in con- 
trol of Congress, 816; defeated in 
1880, 817; successful in 1884, 826; 
defeated in 1888, 840; successful in 
1892, 854; defeated in 1896, 865; in 
1900, 906. 

Demonetization of silver, 811. 

Denys (dii-nese'), an early French 
explorer, 11. 

Deposits, removal of, 469. 

Detroit, Mich., an early French set- 
tlement, 139; transferred to the 
English, 152; transferred to the 
United States, 309; captured by the 
British, 356; recaptured by the 
Americans, 361. 

Dewey, Admiral Geo., at the battle 
of Manila Bay, 881; shares control 
of Philippine atTairs with Gen. 
Otis, 900; candidate for the presi- 
dency, 906. 

Dieskau (di-es-ko'), Baron, in com- 
mand of a French force, 146. 

Dingley, Nelson, 870, 886. 

Dinwiddle (din-wid'di). Gov., of Vir- 
ginia, 142. 

District of Columbia (see Capital), 
slavery in the, 553, 555- 

Donelson, Andrew J., nominated for 
Vice-President, 582. 



586 



PRONOUNCING INDEX 
The references are to Sections, not to pages. 



Doniphan (don'i-fan), Col., his march 
into Mexico, 529. 

Dorchester (dor'ches-ter) Heights, 
198. 

Dorr RebelHon, 513. 

Douglas (dug'las), Stephen A., a 
Northern Democratic leader, 573; 
introduces the Kansas-Nebraska 
Bill, 574; separates from the South- 
ern Democrats, 602; nominated for 
President, 608; is defeated, 609; 
his senatorial campaign against 
Lincoln, 620. 

Dover, N. H., 55. 

Downie (dow'nl). Commodore G., in 
command of the British fleet on 
Lake Champlain, 382. 

Draft, the, 693. 

Drake, Joseph Rodman, an American 
poet, 457. . 

Drake, Sir Francis, an early English 
explorer, 15; fights the Spaniards, 20. 

Dred Scott case, the, 600-2. 

Drunkenness, its former prevalence 
in America, 460. 

Duluth (doo-looth'), Minn., 783. 

Eagan, C. p., Commissary-General, 

899. 

Early, Gen. Jubal A., sent by Lee to 
raid Washington, 703; defeats Sheri- 
dan's army at Cedar Creek, but is 
defeated by Sheridan, 705. 

East Florida, 154. 

Bast Indies, 12. 

Eaton, Theophilus, one of the found- 
ers of New Haven, 60. 

Eckford, Henry, an American ship- 
builder, 380. 

Education. See Public Schools; 
Normal Schools; Colleges. 

Elba, the island to which Napoleon 
was banished, 397. 

Elberon (el'be-ron), a New Jersey 
watering-place, 818. 

Electors, their duty to choose the 
President and Vice-President, 282; 
their first meeting, 287; the first 
count of their votes, 294; the elec- 
toral system in general, 295; how 
it was changed in 1804, 323; failure 
of the electors to choose a Presi- 
dent in 1824, 427; dispute over their 
votes in 1876, 798; how the dispute 
was settled, 799-801, 831. 

Electricity, application to telegraph- 
ing, 510; to the telephone, light, 
heat, and machinery, 805. 

Elizabeth, N. J., settlement, 119. 

Elizabeth, Queen, favors Raleigh, 23. 

Elkton, MdT, Howe disembarks there, 
215; Washington embarks there for 
Yorktown, 258. 

Ellsworth, Oliver, member of the 
Continental Congress, 192. 

Emancipation Proclamation, the, its 
issue and terms, 669; its influence 
on foreign affairs, 671 ; completed 
by the 13th Amendment, 757. 



Embargo, the, its passage and failure, 
345 (see Commerce). 

Emerson, Ralph Waldo, his literary 
work, 592. 

Endicott (en'di-kut), John, a Massa- 
chusetts leader, 50. 

England, refuses to help Columbus 
5; sends Cabot, who claims part of 
North America for her, 10; pre- 
liminary failures, 20, 23-4; organizes 
two colonization companies, 25; 
how her colonies came to lie to- 
gether, 27; struggle between the 
king and the Parliament, 40; the 
Commonwealth. 41; the Restora- 
tion, 42; the first successful Eng- 
lish settlement, 31 ; her relations 
with her colonies, 36-8; her en- 
couragement of the slave-trade, 39; 
her passage of restrictions on co- 
lonial commerce, 67; her wars with 
France after the Restoration, 71; 
how England seized the middle At- 
lantic coast, 109 (see Great Britain). 

English, Wm. H., nominated for 
Vice-President, 817. 

Enterprise, the, captures the Boxer, 
370. . 

Epervier (a-per've-a), the, captured 
by the Peacock, 374. 

Era of Good Feeling, 413, 433. 

Ericsson (er'ik-sen), John, invents 
the screw propeller, 447; builds the 
Monitor, 649. 

Erie Canal, 424. 

Erie, Lake, battle of, 381. 

Erie, Pa., a French fort, 142; Perry's 
ship yard, 381. 

Essex, the, captures the Alert, 366; 
captured by the Phoebe and Cherub, 
373. 

Estaing, Count d' (des-tan(g)'). sent 
to the United States in command 
of a French fleet, 226; aids in the 
attack on Savannah, 244. 

Ether, its application to surgery, 

517- 

Europe, why its people turned to dis- 
covery, 4; what nations of Europe 
took part in the discoveries, 12; 
affairs in Europe, 40-4 (see Great 
Britain, France, Spain, Austria, 
Portugal); immigration from 
Europe after 1848, 572, 829. 

Eutaw (u'taw) Springs, battle of, 
254. 

Everett (ev'er-et), Edward, nominated 
for Vice-President, 608. 

Exchange of prisoners during the 
Civil War, 725. 

Executive Department, its duties, 282; 
the succession in case of death or 
disability, 818, 831. 

Exhibitions, World's, Crystal Palace, 
564; Centennial, 787; Southern, 
824; World's Fair, 845. 

Expansion, 905-6. 

Expense of wars, of Revolutionary 
War, 265; of the War of 1812, 407; 



PRONOUNCING INDEX 



587 



The references are to Sections, not to pages. 



Expense — Continued. 

of the Civil War, 670, 748, 782; of 

the Spanish War, 879, 886. 
Express companies, their origin, 491. 
Extradition of criminals, 50J. 

Fairfield, Conn., scene of the 
I'equot defeat, 59. 

Fair Oaks, battle of, 660. 

Falmouth, Me., destroyed by the 
British, 203. 

Farewell Address, 310. 

Farragut (far'a-gut). Admiral David 
G., fights his way up the Mississippi 
and takes New Orleans, 654-5; re- 
turns to the Gulf of Mexico, 655; 
destroys the Confederate fleet in 
Mobile Bay, 718. 

Fayetteville (fa-et'vil), N. C, settle- 
ment, 93; taken by Sherman, 728. 

Federal Convention, 279. 

Federal Government, established by 
the Constitution, 280; its three de- 
partments, 281-3; its inauguration, 
294; its success, 303; its relations 
to the States, 475. 

Federal Hall, 294, note. 

Federal Party, the, its origin, 285; its 
success, 303; its purposes, 304; suc- 
cessful in 1796, 311; its great mis- 
take, 321; defeated in 1800, 32^; 
the excellence of its work, 331; loses 
power, 332; defeated in 1804, 339; de- 
feated in 1808, 346; defeated in 1812, 
351; supports the Hartford Con- 
vention, 390; becomes extinct, 409. 

Federalist, the, 285. 

Fenians, the, 791. 

Ferdinand, king of Spain, 8. 

Ferelo (fa-ra'lo), Spanish explorer, 15. 

Ferguson, Col. Patrick, in command 
of the British at King's Mountain, 
250. 

Filibusters, their attacks on Cuba and 
Central America, 570, 873. 

Filibustering, 841. 

Filipinos (fil-i-pe'nOs), the, co-operate 
with the Americans. 881: begin hos- 
tilities against the Americans, 900. 

Fillmore, Millard, elected Vice-Presi- 
dent, 548; succeeds to the Presi- 
dency, 557; nominated for Presi- 
dent, 582. 

Fires, in New York, 450; in Chicago 
and Boston, 784. 

Fisheries, the Newfoundland, dis- 
putes as to them, 777. 

Fishing Creek, skirmish at, 250. 

Fisk, C. B., nominated for President, 
840, note. 

Fitch, John, attempts to propel ves- 
sels by steam, 312. 

Five Forks, battle of, 732. 

Flag, the, as it appeared at Cam- 
bridge, and its changes, 197. 

Flamboro' Head, 242. 

Florida, its discovery and exploration, 
9; De Soto lands in it, 14; the 
southern boundary of the English 



Florida — Continued. 
colonies, 30; not an English colony 
until 1763, 32; then transferred by 
Spain to Great Britain, 154; British 
troops from Florida attack Savan- 
nah, 244; transferred by Great Brit- 
ain to Spain in 1783, 263; the Span- 
ish governors aid the British in 
1814, 398; Jackson seizes Pensacola, 
414; Florida transferred to the 
United States by Spain, 414; ad- 
mission, 509; secedes, 613; attacked 
by an expedition from Port Royal, 
715; reconstructed and readmitted, 
762; its electoral votes disputed in 
1876, 798; its returning board, 79S. 

Florida, the, a Confederate privateer, 
672, 696; captured by the Wachusett, 
720. 

Foote, Commodore Andrew H., in 
command of the western fleet, 640. 

Forrest, Gen. N. B., a Confederate 
cavalry officer, 717. 

Fort Brown, 524. 

Fort Dearborn, now Chicago, 449. 

Fort Donelson, captured by Grant, 
640. 

Fort Duquesne (du-kanc'), seized by 
the French, 143; repels the British, 
146; captured by the British, 148. 

Fort Erie, captured by the Ameri- 
cans, 392; repels the British, 393. 

Fort Fisher, its capture by Gen. 
Terry, 716. 

Fort Frontenac, now Kingston, Can., 
148. 

Fort Griswold (griz'wuld), massacre 
by Arnold, 259. 

Fort Henry, captured by gunboats, 
639; its garrison escapes to Fort 
Donelson, 640. 

Fort Jackson, passed by Farragut, 
653; surrenders, 655. 

Fort Leavenworth (lev'n-wurth), 529. 

Fort McAllister, taken by Gen. 
Hazen, 714. 

Fort McHenry, repels the British, 387. 

Fort Meigs (megz), repels the Brit- 
ish, 360. 

Fort Minis, scene of a massacre by 
the Creeks, 395. 

Fort Necessity, surrendered by 
Washington, 144. 

Fort Niagara, captured by the Brit- 
ish, 150. 

Fort Orange, now Albany, 117. 

Fort Pickens, saved from capture by 
the Confederates, 617. 

Fort Pillow, taken by the Confeder- 
ates, 717. 

Fort Pulaski, taken by Gen. Gillmore, 
652. 

Fort St. Philip, passed by Farragut, 
653; surrenders, 655. 

Fort Schuyler, now Rome, N. Y., 220. 

Fort Stephenson, repulses the British, 
360. 

Fort Sumter, held by the Union 
forces, 617; captured by the Con- 



588 PRONOUNCING INDEX 

tS" The references are to Sections, not to pages. 



Fort Sumter — Continued. 
federates, 622; attacked by iron- 
clads, 688; battered into ruins, 688. 

Fort Wagner, captured by Gen. Gill- 
more, 688. 

Fort Washington, captured by the 
British, 209. 

Fortress Monroe, the southern end of 
the Union line in Virginia, 629. 

Forts Mercer and Mifflin, captured by 
the British, 217. 

Fort Wayne, Ind., 308. 

France, early discoveries in Canada, 
11; early failures in attempts to col- 
onize, 18; successful settlement, 19; 
events in France affecting emigra- 
tion, 43; early French wars, 71; 
the French strongholds in Can- 
ada, 72; influence of the French 
over the Indians, 73; their claims 
in New York, no; their explora- 
tions beyond Canada, 136; settle- 
ment within the United Stat<!s, 
137-8; their possessions in North 
America in 1750, 139; the weakness 
of their empire, 140; their efforts to 
keep the English back beyond the 
Alleghanies, 142; they capture Fort 
Duquesne, 143; and Fort Neces- 
sity, 144; France sends troops to 
America, 146; declares war against 
Great Britain, 147; loses Canada, 
152; gives up all her American 
possessions in 1763, 154; secretly 
aids the colonies, 224; makes a 
treaty of alliance with the United 
States, 226; sends a fleet and army 
to America, 230, 257; sends a fleet 
to Chesapeake Bay, 257, note, 258; 
the French forces aid in capturing 
Cornwallis, 260-1; France becomes 
a republic, 305; demands aid from 
the United States, 306; acts in an 
unfriendly manner, 318; is answered 
with war, 319; Napoleon concludes 
a peace, 320; sells Louisiana to the 
United States, 334; oppresses 
American commerce, 343; succeeds 
in bringing the United States into 
war with Great Britain, 349; in- 
feriority of France to Great Britain 
in naval warfare, 369; France is 
conquered and Napoleon banished, 
397; pays for damages to American 
commerce, 464; refuses to intervene 
in the Civil War, 671 ; establishes 
an empire in Mexico, 695; refuses 
to permit the building of Con- 
federate iron-clads. 696; withdraws 
her troops from Mexico, 770. 

Franchise, the, during colonial times, 

130- 

Franklin, battle of, 711. 

Franklin, Benjamin, proposes a plan 
of union, 145; agent of Massachu- 
setts at London, 169; member of 
the Continental Congress, 192; and 
of the committee to draw up a 
Declaration of Independence, 206; 



Franklin, Benjamin — Continued. 
envoy to France, 224, note, 225; fits 
out war-vessels from France, 241; 
obtains a fleet for Paul Jones, 242. 

Frazier's Farm, battle of, 663. 

Fredericksburgh, battle of, 667. 

Fredericksburgh, Va., 667. 

Freedmen, meaning of the term, 754, 
note; their treatment in the South, 
758; they are empowered to vote, 
789; how they were peaceably pre- 
vented from voting, 789; how they 
were prevented by violence, 790-2; 
their other rights secured to them, 
793- 

Freehold, N. J., scene of the battle of 
Monmouth Court-house, 228. 

Free-soil Party, its origin, 547; its 
vote falls off in 1852, 563; it be- 
comes a part of the Republican 
Party in 1856, 576. 

Free Trade, meaning of the term, 425; 
Congress abandons Free Trade and 
supports Protection, 426, 434; desire 
of the South for Free Trade, 446, 
474, 605; Jackson is unable to re- 
vive Free Trade, 470; the Demo- 
crats in 1846 re-establish Free Trade, 
which remains in force until 1861, 
521 ; the Republicans in 1861 aban- 
don Free Trade and re-establish 
Protection, which still remains in 
force, 691, 825, 836; the issue re- 
vived, 837; application to Porto 
Rico, 904 (see Tariff, Protection, 
American System). 

Frelinghuysen, Theodore, nominated 
for Vice-President, 515. 

Fremont, John C, his explorations 
in the Rocky Mountains, 503; aids 
in the conquest of California, 529; 
nominated for President, but de- 
feated, 582; a general in the LTnion 
army, 635. 

French and Indian War, its origin, 
141-2; first fighting of the war, 143- 
4; effects a union of the colonies, 
145; England and France take part 
in it, 146-7; Pitt's successful man- 
agement, 148; his use of the Col- 
onies, 149; capture of Quebec, 150-1; 
conquest of all Canada. 152; peace, 
154; one of its consequences, 159. 

Friction-matches, not in existence in 
1790, 288; invention of, 448. 

Frobisher (fro'bish-er), Martin, his 
failure in Labrador, 10, 20. 

Frolic, the, captured by the ll'asl^, 
368. 

Fuca, Juan de (Hoo-ahn' da foo'ka), 

a Spanish pilot, 15. 
Fugitive slaves, the constitutional 
provisions in regard to them, 284; 
the complaint of the slave States, 
553! passage of a Fugitive Slave 
law, 555; its nature and effects, 556, 

563- ^ 

Fulton, Robert, his application of 
steam to vessels, 337. 



PRONOUNCING INDEX 



589 



The references are to Sections, not to pages. 



Fundamental Constitutions of Caro- 
lina, the, 91, note. 

Gadsden Purchase, the, of territory 
from Mexico, 544. 

Gage, layman J., Secretary of the 
'1 reasury, 869; plan of currency re- 
form, 889. 

Gage, Gen. Thomas, in command of 
the British in Massachusetts, 179. 

Gag-rule, 494. 

Gaines's Mill,_ battle of, 663. 

Garcia (gar-se'a). Gen. Calixto, 874, 
884. 

Garfield, James A., elected President, 
817; inauguration, assassination, and 
death, 818. 

Garrison, William Lloyd, demands 
the abolition of slavery, 462. 

Gas for lighting, not known in 1790, 
288; introduced in America, 422. 

Gaspec (gas-pii'), the, taken by the 
people ot Providence, 171. 

Gates, Gen. Horatio, appointed in 
place of Schuyler, 221 ; forces Bur- 
goyne to surrender, 222; takes all 
the credit, 223; is defeated at Cam- 
den and succeeded by Greene, 249. 

General Armstrong, the, an American 
privateer, 376. 

Genet (je-na'), a French envoy to 
the United States, 306. 

Geneva (je-ne'va), a city of Switzer- 
land, 777. 

Genoa (jen'o-a), the birthplace of 
Columbus, 5. 

Geological surveys begun, 455. 

George II., king of Great Britain, 103. 

Georgia, an English colony in Amer- 
ica, 32; under royal government, 35; 
its inception, 103; settlement, 104; 
slavery, 105; early wars, 116; south- 
ern boundary extended, 154; unable 
to take part in the first Continental 
Congress, 176; conquered by llie 
British, 244; cruelly treated, 246; 
evacuated, 264; western claims, 271; 
cedes them to the United States. 
273; difficulties with the Indians, 
431. 463; secedes, 613; crossed by 
Sherman, 713-4; refuses to accept 
the first terms of reconstruction, 
762; is reconstructed and read- 
mitted, 788. 

Georgia, the, a Confederate privateer, 
696; captured by the Niagara, 720. 

Germantown, battle of, 216. 

Germany, and the Philippines, 887; in 
Samoa. 894. 

Gerry (ger'ri), Elbridge, elected Vice- 
President, 351. 

Gettysburgli, battle of, 677. 

Ghent (gent), treaty of, 400. 

Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, an early Eng- 
lish explorer, 20. 

Gillmore, Gen. Quincy A., in com- 
mand of the Union forces in South 
Carolina, 688. 

Glendale, battle of, 663. 



Gloucester (glos'ter), Mass., attacked 

by the British, 203. 

Gold, found in Virginia, North C'aro- 
lina, and Georgia, 511; in California, 
549; excites an exodus to Califor- 
nia, 550; found in Colorado and 
other parts of the Rocky Moun- 
tains, 590; increase of production, 
780; its comparative value, Sio; is 
made the only coin, 811; gold mono- 
metallism, 857; Gold Standard Act, 
889; in Klondike, 893; gold stand- 
ard in the Republican platform of 
1900, 906. 

Goldsboro, battle of, 729. 

Gomez (go'mass), Gen. Maximo, 874. 

(iood Feeling, Era of, 413, 433. 

Good Hope, Cape of, discovered, 4. 

Goodyear, Charles, his process of 
vulcanizing rubber, 491. 

Gorges (gor'jez), Sir Ferdinando, a 
leader in English colonization, 55. 

Gosnold (goz'nuld), Bartholomew, at 
Buzzard's Bay, 24. 

Graham, W'm. A., nominated for 
Vice-President, 563. 

Grand Army, the, an association of 
veterans, 735, note. 

Grand Gulf, Miss., 681. 

Grant, Gen. Ulysses S., at Belmont, 
63s; in command at Cairo, 639; 
moves up the Tennessee, 640; takes 
Fort Donelson, 640; encamps at 

' Pittsburgh Landing, 641 ; fights the 
battle of .Shiloh, 642; in command 
at Corinth, 646; at Holly Springs, 
679; fails in his first advance on 
Vicksburgh, 646, 680; his friend- 
ship with Sherman, 646; crosses the 
Mississippi, 681; recrosses the Mis- 
sissippi and drives Pemberton into 
Vicksburgh, 681-2; captures Vicks- 
burgh, 682; takes possession of 
Arkansas, 683; called to Chatta- 
nooga, 687; relieves it from siege, 
687; called to Virginia and put .in 
command of all the Union armies, 
69?; acts in conjunction with .Sher- 
man, 698; changes his method of 
fighting, 699; his battles in the 
Wilderness, 701-2; crosses the James 
River, 704; besieges Petersburgh, 
704, 730; takes Petersburgh and 
Richmond, 732; captures Lee's 
army, 733; reviews his army in 
Washington, 735; elected President, 
768; his fitness for the presidency, 
775; his two Administrations, 780-1; 
confidence in his integrity, 797; 
withdraws support from the recon- 
structed governments, 802. 

Grasse (gras). Count de, in command 
of the French fleet, 243; aids in the 
capture of Cornwallis, 261, 289. 

Great Britain (see England, until after 
1707), her relations with her Ameri- 
can colonies, 129-32; her colonies be- 
gin to cross the Alleghanies, 141; 
sends troops to America, 146; de- 



590 



PRONOUNCING INDEX 



^^ The references are to Sections, not to pagej. 



Great Britain — Continued. 
Clares war against France, 147; 
conquers Canada, 152; forces a 
peace from France, 154; unfortunate 
peculiarities of her government, i6o; 
attempts to regulate the colonies, 
163; passes the Stamp Act, 164; 
taxes American coinmerce, 169; re- 
tains only the tea tax, 173; attempts 
to punish disobedience, 175; the dif- 
ficulties of the attempt, 185; pro- 
poses conciliation, 202; drives the 
colonies into declaring their inde- 
pendence, 20$; declares war against 
France, 227; her warfare not a suc- 
cess, ^31; determines to attack the 
Southern States, 236; her com- 
merce injured by American priva- 
teers, 240; agrees to a treaty of 
peace, 262-3; evacuates the United 
States, 264; and the Northwestern 
forts, 309; her wars with Napoleon, 
3-0, 333; her injuries to American 
commerce, 343-4; loses her trade 
with the United States, 345, 349; 
is involved in war with the United 
States, 351; her navy, 352, 365, 369; 
blockades the American coast, 371, 
383; plunders exposed points, 384-8; 
conquers Napoleon and sends an ex- 
pedition against Louisiana, 397; 
agrees to a treaty of peace, 400-1; 
mediates between France and the 
United States, 464; makes an ex- 
tradition treaty with the United 
States, 502; and settles a great part 
of the northern boundary, 503; 
claims the Oregon country, 504; 
compromises it, 523, 777; popula- 
tion, 588; recognizes the Confeder- 
ate States as a belligerent power, 
627, note; demands the surrender 
of the Confederate commissioners, 
638; refuses to recognize the inde- 
pendence of the Confederate States, 
671 ; allows Confederate agents to 
build privateers, 672; but not iron- 
clads, 696; connected with the 
United States by telegraph, 772; 
agrees to submit the Alabama claims 
to arbitration, 776-7; pays the dama- 
ges awarded. 777; receives damages 
for the fisheries, 777; renewal of the 
fisheries dispute, 834; her interest 
in the Panama Canal, 834; dispute 
about seals in Bering Sea, 848; 
friendship in war with Spain, 887; 
interests in Samoa, 894; Clayton- 
Bulwer treaty, 895. 
Greeley, Horace, nominated for Presi- 
dent, 796. 
Greenback Party, the, its objects, 797; 

defeated, 817, 826, 854. 
Greene, Gen. Nathaniel, attacks New- 
port, 230; succeeds Gates, 249; his 
brilliant success, 254. 
Grenada (gren-ah'da'), 1S4. 
Grenville. George, his connection with 
the Stamp Act, 164. 



Groton (grot'n), Conn., scene of the 

Pequot war, 59. 
Guadalupe Hidalgo (gwa'da-loop he- 

dal'go), treaty ot, 543. 
(iuam (gwahm), the islandof, 885. 
Guanahani (gwah-na-hah'ne), discov- 
ered by Coiumbus, 6. 
Guantanamo (.gwahn-ta-nah'mo), 884. 
Guerrillas, irregular forces, 647, 683. 
Gucrricre (ger-re-arc), sunk by the 

Constitution, 367. 
Guiana, British, 861. 
Guilford Court-house, battle of, 253. 
Gunboats, the form used in 1812, 352; 

battles with blockading vessels, 371; 

western, 648; iron-clad gunboats on 

the Atlantic coast, 651. 

Hague Conference, the, 897. 

Hail Columbia, a national song, 319, 

note. 
Hale, John Parker, an antislavery 
leader in Congress, 558; nominated 
for President, 563. 
Hale, Nathan, hung as spy by the 

British, 209, iiote. 
Halifax, N. S., British army goes to 
Halifax, 198; returns to attack New 
York, 207. 
Halleck, Fitz-Greene, an American 

poet, 457. 
Halleck, Gen. Henry W., in command 
of the Union forces in Missouri, 635; 
takes Corinth, 643. 
Hamilton, Alexander, advocate of the 
Constitution, 285; author of the 
Federalist, 285; Secretary of the 
Treasury, 296; proposes a national 
bank, 300; financial measures, 299; 
leader of the Federal Party, 303; 
shot by Burr, 332. 
Hamlin, Hannibal, nominated for 

Vice-President, 608; elected, 609. 
Hampton Roads, battle of, 651. 
Hampton, Va., destroyed, 384. 
Hancock, John, a Massachusetts lead- 
er, 169; his sloop seized, 171; a 
member of the Continental Con- 
gress, 192. 
Harlem, N. Y., skirmish at, 209. 
Harmar's defeat, 308. 
Harnden, \V. F., and the express 

companies, 491. 
Harper's Ferry, W. Va., seized by 
John Brown, 604; limit of the Con- 
federate line, 628; taken by Jack- 
son, 665. 
Harrison^ Benjamin, nominated and 
elected President, 840, 842, 844; de- 
feated for President, 854. 
Harrison, W'm. H., fights the battle 
of Tippecanoe, 350; made com- 
mander-in-chief of the West, 358; 
defends Fort Meigs, 360; defeats 
the British in the battle of the 
Thames and recovers the northwest, 
361 ; nominated for President, but 
defeated, 480; nominated for Presi- 
dent and elected, 498; death, 500. 



PRONOUNCING INDEX 
ff^«g~ The references are to Sections, not to pages. 



591 



Hartford, Conn., settlement, 58. 

Jlartford Convention, 390. 

Harvard College founded, 75. 

Hatcher's Kun, part of Grant's line, 
730. 

Hatteras Inlet, capture of the forts at, 
636. 

Havana, captured by the British and 
provincials, 153; scene of the Maine 
explosion, 877; administrative meas- 
ures in, 902. 

Havre de Grace (havr do grahs), Md., 
attacked by the British, 384; on 
the route to Washington, 623. 

Hawaii, 852; becomes a territory of 
the United States, 888. 

Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 458. 

Hayes, R. B., nominated for Presi- 
dent, 797; his election disputed, 
798; decided by the Electoral Com- 
mission, 801 ; prosperity under his 
Administration, 804; disagreements 
with Congress, 816. 

Hazen, Gen. W'm. B., captures Fort 
McAllister, 714. 

Helena (hel-e'na). Ark., attacked by 
the Confederates, 683. 

Hendricks, Thos. A., nominated for 
Vice-President, 797; his election dis- 
puted, 798; the Electoral Commis- 
sion decides against him, 801 ; nomi- 
nated again and elected, 826. 

Henry, Gen. Guy V., Governor-Gen- 
eral of Porto Rico, 903; is suc- 
ceeded by Gen. Davis, 903. 

Henry, Patrick, a Virginia orator, 165; 
member of the Continental Con- 
gress, 192. 

Hessians, the, dislike of the Ameri- 
cans for them, 202; a Hessian gar- 
rison captured at Trenton, 212. 

Hobart, Garret A., elected Vice-Presi- 
dent, 865; died, 869, note. 

Hobkirk's Hill, battle of.. 254. 

Hoe, R. M., and the printing-press, 
518. 

Holland, agreement with Spain, 12; 
explores and colonizes the country 
around the Hudson River, 28; con- 
quers the Swedes in Delaware, 29; 
the refuge of the English Puritans, 
45; the Dutch government of New 
Netherland, 109; overthrown by 
the English, 109; Holland recon- 
quers the country, but finally aban- 
dons it to the English, iii. 

Holly Springs, Miss., Grant's head- 
quarters, 679; captvired by Con- 
federate cavalry, 680. 

Holmes (homz), Oliver Wendell, 458. 

Homestead riots, 853. 

Hood, Gen. J. B., succeeds Johnston, 
708; attacks Sherman, 709; en- 
deavors to transfer the war to Ten- 
nessee, 710; is beaten and loses his 
army, 711; consequences of his mis- 
take, 712.^ 

Hooker. Gen. Joseph E., succeeds 
Burnside in command of the Army 



Hooker, Gen. Joseph E. — Continued. 
of the Potomac, 667; is defeated at 
Chancellorsville, 674; turns over the 
command to Meade, 676. 
Hooker, Thomas, a Massachusetts 
minister, 50; heads the emigration 
to Connecticut, 58. 

Hornet, the, captures the Peacock, 370; 
and the Penguin, 375. 

Horseshoe Bend, battle of, 396. 

Houses, in 1790, 288; in i860 and since 
that year, 595. 

Houston (hews'tun), Gen. Sam., a 
Texas leader, 506. 

Howe, Gen. Sir William, lands at 
Boston, 194; commands in the as- 
sault at Bunker Hill, 195; succeeds 
Gage and evacuates Boston, 198; 
lands on Staten Island, 207; fights 
the battle of Long Island and 
drives Washington north to Peeks- 
kill, 209; attacks Philadelphia by 
sea, 215; fights the battle of Chad's 
Ford and takes Philadelphia, 216; 
is succeeded by Clinton, 228. 

Howe, Elias, and the sewing-machine, 
517- 

Hudson, Henry, seeks the Northwest 
Passage, 21 ; explores the coast 
from Hudson River to Chesapeake 
Bay, 28. 

Hudson River, the, why its name was 
given, 28; its relation to New 
Netherland, no; its importance to 
New York City, 116; the British 
hope to control it through their 
navy, 207; crossed by Washington 
and Cornwallis, 210; forms part of 
the route to Canada, 218; crossed 
by lUirgoyne, 221 ; steamboats on 
the Hudson, 405; the " anti-rent " 
disturbances along the river, 514. 

Huguenots (hu'ge-nots), driven from 
France, 43. 

Hulks, or prison-ships, 232. 

Hull, Capt. Isaac, in command of the 
Constitution, 366. 

Hull, Gov. William, surrenders De- 
troit and Michigan, 356. 

Hunter, Gen. David, in command of 
the Union forces in the Shenandoah 
Valley, 700; defeated and driven 
into West Virginia, 703. 

Hutchinson, Mrs. Anne, banished 
from Massachusetts, 51. 

Hutchinson, Thomas, a Massachu- 
setts loyalist, 169. 

Iberville, d' (de-barc-veeP), an early 
French explorer, 138. 

Idaho, admitted to the Union, 846. 

Illinois, why its name was given, 3; 
conquered by Clarke, 235; why 
Virginia claimed it, 271; made a 
Territory, 405; admission, 419 (see 
Ordinance of 1787). 

" Immunes," 882. 

Impeachment of the President, 282; 
of President Johnson, 767. 



592 PRONOUNCING INDEX 

fW° The references are to Sections, not to pages. 



Imperialism, 905-6. 

Impressment, right of, 343, 401. 

Imprisonment for debt, hardship of 
the system, 288, note; its gradual 
abolition, 461. 

Income tax decision, 860. 

Independence, Declaration of. See 
Declaration of Independence. 

Independence, Mo., Mormon settle- 
ment near, 495. 

Independents, the, 869. 

Indiana conquered by Clarke and 
made a part of Virginia, 235; why 
Virginia claimed it, j/i; made a 
Territory, 324; admission, 405 (see 
Ordinance of 1787). 

Indianapolis monetary conference, 
889. 

Indians, the, why the name was 
given, 2; their tribes and names, 
3; troubles with the Indians in 
Massachusetts, 47; in Connecticut, 
59; throughout New England, 68-9; 
in New York and Canada, 73; in 
Virginia, 77, 81 ; in North Carolina, 
95; in South Carolina, 102; peace 
v-'ith them in Pennsylvania, 123; the 
northwestern Indians join the 
French, 144; submit unwillingly to 
the English, 144; form a part of 
Burgoyne's army, 218; sack ex- 
posed American villages and are 
heavily punished by Sullivan, 232; 
in Ohio, 308, 314; take sides with 
the British in 1812, 350, 361; their 
cruelty, 359; troubles with the 
Creeks, 394-6; with the Florida In- 
dians, 414, 463; with the Georgia In- 
dians, 431, 463; with the Illinois 
Indians, 463; with the Minnesota 
Indians, 673; with the Modocs and 
Sioux, 755; with the Nez Perces, 
807. 

Indian Territory, the, 3, 846. 

Indies, East, assigned mainly to 
Portugal by Spain, 12. 

Indies, West, explored by Columbus, 
6; French possessions in, 230, 266; 
a refuge for many of the Tories, 
261. 

Indigo, cultivated in South Carolina, 
98, 316. 

IngersoU, Jared, nominated for Vice- 
President, 351, note. 

Insular Commission, Porto Rico, 903. 

hisurgcntc, V (lahn(g) - sur - zhahnt'), 
captured by the Constellation, 319. 

" Insurgents," and Porto Rican tariff, 
904. 

Insurrection, in Massachusetts, 276; 
power of Congress to suppress, 281; 
the Whiskey Insurrection, 307. 

Insurrection, negro, in South Caro- 
lina, 99; in New York, 115; in 
Virginia, 462; the general Southern 
feeling, 492, 603; John Brown's, 604. 

Interest, reduction of, 814. 

Interior, Department of the, estab- 
lishment of, 296, 520. 



Internal Improvements. See Ameri- 
can System. 

International Copyright, 848. 

Interstate Commerce Act, 832. 

Iowa, part of the Louisiana pur- 
chase, 334; admission, 522. 

Ireland, 771, 772. 

Iron, iron-mines of Pennsylvania lit- 
tle known in 1790, 291; in New 
Jersey, 511. 

Iron-clad vessels, used during the 
Civil War on the western rivers, 
648; previously built as experi 
ments by Great Britain and France 
649; the first battle of iron-clads 
650-1; introduced into all navies 
651; at New Orleans, 654-5; used 
in attacking Fort Sumter, 688 
capture of the Atlanta, 688; destruc 
tion of the Albemarle, 716; capture 
of the Tennessee, 718. 

Iroquois (ir-o-kwoi'), an Indian race, 3. 

Irving, Washington, his literary 
work, 457. 

Isabella, queen of Spain, 5. 

Island Number Ten, capture of, 648. 

Italy, dispute with, 849. 

Jackson, Andrew, put in command 
of the Tennessee troops, 395; over- 
throws the Creeks, 396; seizes Pen- 
sacola, 398; completely defeats the 
British expedition against Louisi- 
ana, 399; seizes Florida, 414; 
nominated for President, but de- 
feated, 427; nominated again by 
the Democrats and elected, 438; 
sketch, 441 ; change of manners 
during his Administrations, 442; his 
foreign policy, 464; his political con- 
tests, 466; changes the civil service. 
467; overthrows the Bank of the 
United States, 468-9; attacks the 
American System, 470; re-elected 
President, 473; resists Nullification, 
477; his general success, 481-2. 

Jackson, Gen. Thomas Jonathan 
(Stonewall), Lee's ablest lieutenant, 
661; his raid on Banks, 662; re- 
turns to the Peninsula, 663; over- 
whelms Pope, 664; captures 
Harper's Ferry, 665; aids in de- 
feating Burnside at Fredericks- 
burgh, 667; killed at Chancellois- 
villc. 674. 

Jackson, Miss., held by Johnston, 
681-2. 

Jacksonville, Fla., taken by the L^nion 
forces, 715. 

Jalapa (Hah-lah'pa), Me.x., occupied 
by Scott, 536-7. 

James I., king, charters two coloni- 
zation companies, 25; difficulties 
with his Parliament, 40. 

James II., king, his reign in England, 
42; annoys the colonies, 44; takes 
away the charter of Massachusetts, 
54 ; attempts to do so in the other 
New England colonies, 70. 



PRONOUNCING INDEX 
^ptff" The references are to Sections, not to pages. 



593 



James River, the, why the name was 
given, 31; McClellan's campaign on 
the James, 657-63; Grant's cam- 
paign on the James, 704, 731. 
Jamestown, V^a., settled, 26, 31, 76; 
destroyed, 82. 

Japan, opened to American com- 
merce, 569. 

Jasper, Sergeant William, 203, note. 

Java, the, taken by the Constitution, 
368. 

Jay, John, member of the Continental 
Congress, 192; first chief justice of 
the Supreme Court, 298; concludes 
a treaty with Great Britain, 309. 

Jefferson, Thomas, member of the 
Continental Congress, 192-3; author 
of the Declaration of Independence, 
206; Secretary of State, 296; a leader 
of the Republican Party. 303; 
nominated for President, but de- 
feated, 311; nominated again and 
elected, 323; upholds state sov- 
ereignty, 328; change of manners 
during his Administrations, 330-1; 
acquires Louisiana, 334; orders the 
Oregon country to be explored, 335; 
re-elected President, 339; his peace 
policy, 344; death, 432. 

Jersey, the, a notorious prison-ship, 
232. 

Johnson, Andrew, Senator from Ten- 
nessee, 616; military governor of 
Tennessee, 641; elected Vice-Presi- 
dent, 723; succeeds to the Presi- 
dency, 739; his feeling in regard to 
the States, 754; his plan of recon- 
struction, 756; vetoes the plan of 
Congress, but is defeated, 761 ; 
quarrels with Congress, 765; re- 
moves Stanton, 766; is impeached, 
but not convicted, 767. 

Johnson, Ilerschel V., nominated for 
Vice-President, 608. 

Johnson, Richard JSL, nominated for 
V^ice- President and elected, 480; re- 
nominated and defeated, 498. 

Johnson, Sir William, defeats the 
French and Indians near Lake 
George, 146. 

Johnston, Gen. Albert Sidney, in 
command of the Confederate armies 
in the West, 639; killed at Shiloh, 
642. 

Johnston, Gen. Joseph E., decides the 
battle of I'uU Run, 632; in com- 
mand of the Confederate army on 
the Peninsula, 658; wounded and re- 
tires, 660; succeeds Bragg in the 
West, 680; tries to aid Pemberton, 
681; is driven out of Jackson, 682; 
takes command at Dalton, 687; his 
position, 697; his retreat from Dal- 
ton to Atlanta, 706; the reasons for 
it, 707; his removal, 708; recalled 
to service, 728; attacks Sherman, 
729; surrenders, 734. 

Joliet (zho-le-a'), Louis, finds the 
Mississippi, 136. 



Jones, Capt. Jacob, in command of 

the Wasp, 368. 
Jones, Capt. John Paul, in command 

of the Ranger, 240; of the Richard, 

242. 
Judiciary Department, its duties, 283. 
Julian, George W., nominated for 

Vice-President, 563. 

Kalb (kalb), Baron de, arrives from 
Europe, 214; killed at Camden, 249. 

Kansas-Nebraska Act, its passage and 
consequences, 574. 

Kansas, becomes a Territory, 574; the 
two sections struggle for it, 578; 
the free-State settlers win, 579; ad- 
mission, 587. 

Kansas City, 906. 

Kansas Pacific Railway, 890. 

Kaskaskia (kas-kas'ke-a), 111., a form- 
er French town, 139. 

Kearney (kar'ni). Gen. S. W., con- 
quers New Mexico, 529. 

Kcarsargc (ke'ar-sarj), the, sinks the 
Alabama, 720. 

Kenesaw (ken-e-saw') Mountain, bat- 
tle of, 706. 

Kennebec (ken-e-bek') River, the, 
early settlement, 33; route to Can- 
ada, 200. 

Kent, James, a great American law- 
yer, 459. 

Kentucky, Boone's settlement, 157, 
note; followed by others, 235; the 
territory belongs to Virginia, 271; 
admission, 302; massacre of her 
troops, 359; sends men to defend 
New Orleans, 398; supports the 
Union, 626; Confederates in Ken- 
tucky, 639; they are driven out, 
641; raided by Bragg, 644; by 
John Morgan, 684. 

Kentucky and Virginia resolutions, 
the, 322. 

Key, Francis S., writes the song 
" Star-Spangled Banner," 387, note. 

Key West, Fla., saved from the Con- 
federates, 617; naval rendezvous, 
882. 

Kidd, Capt. Robert, a New York pi- 
rate, 114. 

Kieft (keeft), Sir William, governor 
of New York, 109. 

King, Rufus, nominated for Vice- 
President, 339, note; for President, 
409, note. 

King, W. R., nominated for Vice- 
President, 563. 

King's Mountain, battle of, 250. 

Kingston, Can., taken from the 
French by the British, 148. 

Kingston, N. Y., 117. 

Kingston, R. I., scene of the swamp 
fight, 69. 

Klondike gold-fields, the, 893. 

Knox, Gen. Henry, Secretary of War, 
296. 

Knoxville, Tenn., besieged by the 
Confederates, 686. 



594 



PRONOUNCING INDEX 
^ The references are to Sections, not to pages. 



K=\ko^^0!^^l^H„r^he case of. 

568. 
Ku Klux Klan, 792- 



Labrador (lab-ra-dorr'), failures to 

settle it, 10, ^o. _ 
Ladrones (lad-ro'nes) the, 885. 
Lafavette (lah-fa-ef), Ind., 350- 
La Fayette, Marquis de arrives from 
Etirope, ii4; attacks Newport. 230; 
fights^ Arnold and Philhpsm Vir- 
ginia 252; prevents Corn walhs from 
ILcapini 258; revisits the United 
States in old age, 421. 
Lancaster (langk'ns-ter), fa-, -i7- 
Land companies, 141.. 292. 
Lane, Joseph, nominated for Vice 

President. 608. . -, gx oq, 

T a Ouasima (a kwa-se ma), 882. 
l1 sine (lah sahl), Robert de, names 
Louisiana, 136. nr<>o-nn Tn- 

Lava Beds, scene of an Oregon In 

dian war, 785. command 

^^o7"thr'H'or^J;,^3;?; 'oi the C/,«a- 

LaCrf-af the, Terry's flag-sh>P- „3^„y , 
Lawrence, the river St 'ts discovery, 
II- its acquisition by the i<rencn, 
i8- becomes part of the northern 
boundary of the United States. 263. 
T aws of the United States, under the 
^Constitution. 280; by whom they are 
made 281 ; by whom they are exe 
?uted 282 by whom they are inter- 
preted, 283; laws passed by Con- 
sress, 207-8 (see Congress); how at 
fected bv the veto, 469; by the ques 
tion of slavery, 508. 
Leavenworth deVn-wurth) Kan., 529- 
Lee, Arthur, agent in France, 2-4, 

L^^'^Gen. Charles, in command at 
Peekskill. 210; dismissed from the 
QfTvice. 228, note. 
lII Gen. Robert E.. attempts to 
recover West Virginia 630; takes 
command of the Confederate Army 
6>;8 note; recognized as the ablest 
Confederate general 661; fights he 
Seven Days' Battles, 663; oins 
Jackson after the second, battle of 
Bull Run. 664; first invasion of tl^e 
North 665; at the battle of An- 
tietam 666; defeats Burnside at 
FredTr'icksburgh, 667; defeats the 
Tln^on Army at ChancellorsviUe, 
67^ second invasion of the North. 
677-6; defeated at Gettysburg!, 677; 
K- fitrhts the Wilderness battles 
against Grant. 70.; forced back on 

Ichmond, 702-4; '"^'^^^''J'Z 
Richmond, 732; surrenders at Ap- 
pomattox, 733- . r ,. „ iprm 
Legal Tender, meaning of the term, 

670. 



Legislative department, its duties and 

membership. 281. 
Leisler (lisc'ler), Jacob, hung for trea- 

lIoh.' Ponce de (ponc'tha da la'onc), 

discovers Florida, 9- , 

Lcol^ard, the, insults the Chcsafcakc, 

Lc'^nt (le-vanf). the, captured by 

the CoHstitutwii. 375. 
Lewes (lu'ess), Del., destroyed, 384- 
Lexington, Mass., fight at, 181. 
Liberal Republicans why they left 

the Republican Party, 795. are 

joined by the Democrats and de- 

feated, 7q6. 
Liberator, the, a Boston newspaper, 

462. 
Liliuokalani, 852. . , 

Lincoln, Abraham, nominated tor 
"^ President, 608; elected, 609; his d^- 
advantages, 621;. 9rders Fort Sum^ 
ter to be provisioned. 622. cans 
for volunteers, 623; proclaims a 
blockade of Southern P^^ts /f' 
calls a special session of Congress, 
631 ; begins the appointment of 
miltary governors. 641; Issues the 
Emancipation Proclamation, .669, 
proclaims a day of thanksgiving 
for Union victories. 689; re-elected 
President. 723; the public estima- 
t'ion of him'. V36;, .h.s assassination 
and death. 737! his funera , 738^ 
Tinroln Gen. Benjamin, in coin 
^mand'of the American forces in 
Sluth Carolina. :m; .^""^"ders at 
rinarleston 247; receives the sur- 
render orthe'British at Yorktown. 

Lu'erature, in 1775, ^87;frorn 1790 un- 
til 1830, 457;- after 1830, 4S8, m it-- 

L^r.'^Bwl' the. beaten by the Prcs. 

L:^;ng^."^bert. member of the 

Lo"crTol!n^^°fnir^h^pbi.osopher, 

Locomotive engine. Trevithick's and 
Stephenson's locomotives. ^29, the 
new machine introduced 1"*° the 
United States, 442; A"l"'"'" 7^'^^ 
their own ocomotives. 443 (see 
Railway!); possible use of elec- 

Logan.' Joh'n A., nominated for Vice- 
/resident, but defeated, 826. 

?^i^ld^^n.^HrVl^nto?y: 32 -'loses 
Li'ng?'Yoh^n ^S.,'°-Secretary of the 

Lo'iigf^ilow!- Henry Wadsworth. an 

American poet, 458- 
Mislrn3;rY.;irm^edbyCon- 



PRONOUNCING INDEX 



595 



The references are to Sections, not to pages. 



Long Island — Coiiiznued 

necticut, but taken by New York, 
no; held by the British, J31. 

Longstreet, Gen. James, in command 
of the Confederate forces at Knox- 
ville, 686. 

Lookout Mountain, battle of, 6S7. 

Lords, House of, 40. 

Los Angeles (los ahng'Hii-lez), Cal., 
the last battle wun tne Mexicans in 
Califortiia, 5J9; terminus of the 
Southern Pacific Railroad, 783. 

Louisburgh (loo'is-burg), a French 
stronghold on Cape iJreton Island, 
72; taken by the British, 148. 

Louisiana Purchase, the, 334. 

Louisiana, State of, admission, 405; 
secedes, 613; operations in the 
State, 653-5, 679, 682, 715; recon- 
structed and readmitted, 762; dis- 
orders in the State, 790; electoral 
votes disputed, 798; the Returning 
Board, 798; the decision, 801. 

Louisiana territory, its original^ ex- 
tent, 135 ;' so named by La Salle, 
136; granted, to a French company, 
138; France surrenders that portion 
east of the Mississippi to Great 
Britain, 154; France transfers _ the 

§ortion west of the Mississippi to 
pain, artd it keeps tjje name Lou- 
isiana, r55; Spain's territory of 
Louisiana becomes the \yestern 
boundary of the United States, 263; 
transferred by Spain to France in 
1800, 334; by France to the L^nited 
States in 1803, 334; attacked with- 
out success by Great Britain", 397; 
slavery in Louisiana, 415; the ter- 
ritory divided by the Missouri Com- 
promise line, 418^ (see Compromise, 
Missouri); did not cover the Ore- 
gon country, 504; or Texas, 505. 

Lovejoy, E. P., l«rlled by a mob at 
Alton, 493. 

Lowell (lo'el), Mass., growth, 450. 

Lowell, James Russell, his literary 
work, 592. 

Lticifer match, not known in 1790, 
288; its invention, 448. 

Lundy's Lane, battle of, 392. 

Luzon (loo-son'), war in, 900-1. 

Lynchburgh (linch'burg), \'a., at- 
tacked unsuccessfully from the 
Shenandoah valley, 700; cut off 
from Richmond by Sheridan, 731; 
Lee tries to reach it, 733. 

Lynn (lin), Mass., settlement, 49. 

Lyon, Gen. Nathaniel, in command 
of the I'nion forces in Missouri, 
635- 

Macdonough, Commodore Tiiom.\s. 

in command of the American Hcet 

on Lake Champlain, 382. 
Macedonian, the, taken bv the United 

States, 368. 
Mackinaw (mak'in-aw), Mich., an 

early French fort, 139. 



Macon (ma'kon), Ga., 725. 

Madeira (ma-dee'ra), 368. 

Madison, James, one of the leaders 
in forming the Constitution, 278; 
elected President, 346; sketch, 348; 
re-elected, 351. 

Magellan (mii-jel'lan), Fernando, dis- 
covers the way around South Amer- 
ica, from Europe to the East In- 
dies, 21. 

jNIaine, its Indian names, 3; sighted 
by Cortereal, 12; attempt to settle 
it, 33; forms part of the Plymouth 
Company's grant, 33; becomes a 
part of Massachusetts, 54; a large 
part of it conquered by the British 
in 1814-15, 3S5; admission, 418; 
boundary dispute with New Bruns- 
wick, 497; settled by treaty, 503. 

Maine, the, blown up in Havana har- 
bor, S77. 

Malietoa (mal-e-a-to'a), king of 
Samoa, 894. 

Malietoa Tanu (mal-Oa tua ta-noo'), 
894- 

Malvern (mawl'vern) Hill, battle of, 
663. 

Manassas (ma-nas'sas) Junction, Va., 
632, 658. 

Manhattan (man-hat'tan) Island, 
bought by the Dutch, 28. 

Manila, occupied by the Americans, 
88r; still under martial law, 901. 

Manila Bay, battle of, 881. 

Manufactures, begun in New England, 
75; efforts of Parliament to pro- 
hibit them, 67, 163; encouragement 
of manufactures by the colonies, 
186; influence of the patent system, 
312 (see Patents); decline of manu- 
factures after 1815, 406; in order to 
revive them. Congress turns to 
Protection, 426 (see Protection); 
rise of manufacturing cities, 450, 
589. 

Marietta (ma-re-et'ta), O., settlement, 
292. 

Marion (ma'ri-un). Gen. Francis, 248. 

Marque (mark), letters of, 625. 

Marquesas (mar-ka-sas') Islands, 373. 

Marquette, Jacques (zhahk mar-ket'), 
finds the Mississippi, 136. 

Marshall, John, a great lawyer and 
judge, 459. 

Maryland, part of the London Com- 
pany's grant, 2-\ a proprietary col- 
ony. 35; its first proprietor and 
name, 85; settlement, 86; forces 
the transfer of the western terri- 
tory to the United States, 272; one 
of the " small " States in 1787. 279; 
holds to tlie Union, 626; operations 
in Maryland, 665, 675. 

Mason and Dixon's Line, 87. 
Mason, John, proprietor of New 

Hampshire, 55. 
Massachusetts, its Indian name, 3; 
the remnant of the Plymouth Com- 
pany's grant, 27; originally two 



59^ PRONOUNCING INDEX 

yjg" The references are to Sections, not to pages. 



Massachusetts — Continued. 
colonies, 33; a charter colony, 35; set- 
tlement of the Plymouth colony, 45; 
its leaders, 47; settlement of the 
Massachusetts Bay colony, 48; sup- 
posed meaning of the name, 48, 
note; its leaders, 50; religious per- 
secution, 51-2; witchcraft, 53; union 
of the two colonies, 54; takes part 
in the war against Philip, 69; 
loses the charter, 54, 70; captures 
Port Royal, 72; proposes the Stamp 
Act Congress, 166; resists commer- 
cial taxation, 169; resistance ceases 
to be peaceable, 171; Parliament 
declares the Massachusetts people 
rebels, 172; and attempts to alter 
the charter, 175; Congress promises 
to support Massachusetts, 177; state 
of the colony in 1775, 180; the Mas- 
sachusetts people fight the British, 
181-2; and besiege Boston, 183; stands 
second in population in 1775 and 
seventh in 1880, 184; operations in 
Massachusetts, 194-8; Massachusetts 
claims western territory, 271; cedes 
it to the United States, 273; rebel- 
lion in, 276; introduces the normal- 
school system, for training public- 
school teachers, 455. 

Massachusetts Government Act, the, 
175. 

Mataafa (ma-ta-a'fa), king of Samoa, 
894. 

Matamoras (mat-a-mo'ros), Mex., 526, 

Mather (math'er). Cotton, a Massa- 
chusetts minister, 53. 

Mauch Chunk (mawk chunk), Pa., 
429. 

Maximilian, made emperor of Mexico, 
695; taken and shot by the Mexi- 
cans, 770. 

Mayflower, the, 45. 

McClellan, Gen. George B., enters 
West Virginia, 630; called to com- 
mand the Army of the Potomac, 
633; transfers the Army of the 
Potomac to the Peninsula, 657; 
takes Yorktown and tries to make 
a junction with McDowell, 659; 
the army is divided by the Chicka- 
hominy, 660; McClellan loses con- 
nection with McDowell, 662; fights 
the Seven Days' Battles and reaches 
the James River, 663; recalled to 
aid Pope, 664; leads his army 
across Maryland to cover P>altimore, 
665; fights the battle of Antietam, 
and is succeeded by Burnside, 666; 
nominated for President, but de- 
feated, 723. 

McClure, Capt. R. J. M., finds a 
" northwest passage," 21. 

McDowell, Gen. Irvin, in command of 
the Union forces at Bull Run, 632; 
of the force covering Washington, 
659; cut off from McClellan, 662. 

McKinley Tariff Act, 842. 



McKinley, Wm., elected President, 
865; causes of his election, 869; in- 
augural address, 869; calls e-xtra 
session of Congress, 869; appoints 
monetary commission, 872; an- 
nounces his Cuban policy, 875; his 
proposition to Spain, 878; requests 
authority from Congress to inter- 
vene by force, 878; proclaims a 
blockade of Cuba, 882; attitude 
towards the civil service, 892; 
recommends control of Nicaraguan 
canal by the United States, 895; 
Philippine policy, 900; appoints 
civil commissioners for the Philip- 
pines, 900; appoints an Insular 
Commission for Porto Rico, 903; 
on the Porto Rican tariff question, 
904; renominated, go6. 

Meade, Gen. George G., in command 
at Gettysburgh, 676-7. 

Mechanicsville, battle of, 663. 

Mediation of Russia to make peace 
between Great Britain and the 
United States, 400; of Great Britain 
to make peace between France and 
the United States, 464. 

Memphis, Tenn., visited by yellow 
fever, 808. 

Meridian (me-rid'i-an), Miss., occu- 
pied by Sherman, 717. 

Mcrrimac, the, turned into a Con- 
federate iron-clad, 649; destroys the 
Union fleet in Hampton Roads, 650; 
fights the Monitor, 651; results of 
the battle, 651 ; destruction of the 
Mcrrimac, 659. 

Merritt, Gen. Wesley, at Manila, 881. 

jNIexico, its Indian empire, 2; Spanish 
adventure in it, 7; conquered by 
the Spaniards in 1521, 14; perhaps 
aimed at by Burr, 340; rebels 
against Spain and becomes an in- 
dependent republic, 506; claims 
Texas, 524; claims the Nueces 
River as the western boundary of 
Texas, 524; her disadvantages in 
war, 526; war declared, 527; loses 
California, 529; and New I\Iexico, 
529; Taylor's operations, 531-3; 
Scott's operations, 534-42; peace 
concluded, 543; Maximilian be- 
comes emperor, 695; and is taken 
and shot by the Mexicans, 770. 

Michigan, claimed by Virginia, 271; 
covered by the Ordinance of 1787, 
274; surrendered by PIull, 356; re- 
conquered by Harrison, 361; made 
a Territory, 405; admission, 454; 
copper in, 512. 

Milan (mi-lan'). Decree, the, 343. 

Miles, Major-(ien. Nelson A., occu- 
pies Porto Rico, 883; the " beef " 
scandal, 899. 

Militia, in the Revolutionary armies, 
265; power of Congress over, 281; 
employed in the Whiskey Insurrec- 
tion, 307; against the "Anti- 
renters," 514. 



PRONOUNCING INDEX 



597 



The references are to Sections, not to pages. 



Milledgeville, Ga., 713. 

Millen. Ga.. 713. 

Mill Spring, battle of, 640. 

Mills IJill, the, «39. 

Minerals, mineral wealth of the Unit- 
ed States, 511; of the South, 824. 

Minnesota, part of the Louisiana pur- 
chase, 334; admission, 587; Sioux 
war in, 673. 

Mint, the, first coins issued, 312. 

Minuit (niin'u-it), Peter, governor of 
New Nctherland, 29; of Delaware, 
109. 

Minute-men, in Massachusetts, 180; in 
the Revolutionary armies, 265. 

Missionary Ridge, battle of, 687. 

Mississippi, claimed by Georgia, 271; 
ceded to the United States, 273; 
made a Territory, 324; part, of the 
Southwest Territory, 394; admission, 
419; secedes, 613; operations in, 
643, 646, 679-82, 717, 727; refuses the 
first terms of reconstruction, 762; 
electoral votes not received in 1868, 
768, note; reconstructed and read- 
mitted, 788; disorders in, 790. 

Mississippi River, the, crossed by De 
Soto, 14; upper part found by Mar- 
quette and Joliet, 136; its mouth 
found by d'lberville, 138; becomes 
the boundary between Spanish 
Louisiana and the British colonies, 
154; some of the States claim to 
extend west to the Mississippi, 271; 
treaty with Spain as to its use, 315; 
steamboat used on it, 405, 449; In- 
dians removed beyond it, 430; forti- 
fied by the Confederates, 628; opened 
up as far south as Memphis, 643; 
gunboat operations on it, 648; 
opened up throughout, except at 
Vicksburgh and Port Hudson, 655; 
the completion of the work falls to 
Grant, 679; he operates at first on 
the west side of the river, 681; after- 
ward on the east side, 681 ; Vicks- 
burgh and Port Hudson surrender 
and the river is opened, 682; re- 
sults, 689-90; surrender of the Con- 
federate forces west of the river, 
734; difficulties in its navigation, 
809, 821. 
Missouri, part of the Louisiana pur- 
chase, 334; admission, 418; State 
officers secessionists, 626; opera- 
tions in Missouri, 635, 637, 647. 
Missouri Compromise. See Compro- 
mise, Missouri. 
Mobile (mo-beel'), Ala., originally an 
Indian town, 14; settled by the 
French, 138; one of the last Con- 
federate ports, 715; how Farragut 
forced his way into the bay, 718; 
surrender of the city, y2y. 
Modoc War, the, 785. 
Mohawk River, the, 219. 
Mohawks, an Indian tribe, 3. 
Molino del Rey (mO-Ie'no del rfi), bat- 
tle of, 541. 



Monetary commission, the, 872, 889. 

Monetary conference at Indianapolis, 
889. 

Money or currency, tobacco, 78; rice, 
98; paper, 2^, 670; coin, 281; State 
paper, 286; lack of money in 1812, 
355- 

Monitor, the, built by Ericsson, 649; 
battle with the Merrimac, 651; its 
etTects on naval construction, 651. 

Monk's Corner, battle of, 247. 

Monmouth (.mon'muth), battle of, 
228. 

Monongahela (mo-non-ga-he'hi) Riv- 
er, the, 142, 853. 

Monroe Doctrine, the, its announce- 
ment, 420; violation by France, 695; 
the United States again enforces it, 
770, 861. 

Monroe (mun-ro'), James, elected 
President, 409; re-elected, 413. 

Montana, 835. 

Montauk, camp at, 882. 

Montcalm (mont-kahm'). Marquis de, 
in command of the French forces 
in Canada, 147; deiends Ticon- 
deroga, 148; draws all his forces 
to defend Quebec, 150; defeat and 
death, 151. 

Monterey (mon-te-ra'). Cal., 529. 

Monterey, Mex., occupied by Taylor, 

531- 

Montgomery, Ala., capital of the 
Confederate States, 614; capital 
changed to Richmond, 628. 

Montgomery, Gen. Richard, killed at 
Ouebec, 200. 

]\Iontreal (mont-re-awP), a French 
town, 72, 139; taken by the English, 
152; taken and lost by the Ameri- 
cans, 200; an object of American 
attack, 357. 

Monts (mawn(g)), de, a successful 
French colonizer, 19. 

Morgan, Gen. Daniel, in command 
of the Americans at the Cowpens, 

251- 

Morgan, John, a Confederate cavalry 
officer, 6S4. 

Morgan, William, his abduction and 
its consequences, 472. 

Mormons, the, their origin and settle- 
ment in Illinois, 495; remove to 
Utah, 586; still resist the laws 
against polygamy, 822; renounce 
polygamy, 862. 

Morris, Robert, a member of the Con- 
tinental Congress, i^. 

Morristown, N. J., the American 
headquarters during the latter part 
of the Revolution, 212, 229, 239. 

Morse, S. F. B., and the electric tele- 
graph, 510. 

Morton, Levi P., elected Vice-Presi- 
dent, 840. 

Morton, Dr. W. T. G., and anaes- 
thetics, 517. 

Motley, John Lothrop, his literary 
work, 592. 



59^ PRONOUNCING INDEX 

fj&" The references are to Sections, not to pages. 



Moultrie (molf'tri), William, defends 
Charleston against the liritish, 203. 

Mount Hope, R. 1., King i'hilip's 
headquarters, 69. 

Mount Vernon, Va., Washington's 
home, 310, 325. 

MuraviefF (moo-ra've-6f), Count, 
peace proposals, 897. 

Murfreesboro (mur-freez-bur'ro), bat- 
tle of, 645. 

Napoleon Bonaparte. See France. 

Narragansett (nar-ra-gan'set), an In- 
dian name, 3. 

Narvaez (nar-vah'eth), a Spanish ex- 
plorer, 9. 

Nashville, battle of, 711. 

Nashville, Term., taken by the Union 
forces, 641. 

Natchez (nach'ez). Miss., a former 
French post, 139; Burr arrested 
there, 340; in the Southwest Terri- 
tory, 394; Tennessee volunteers 
marched thither, 395. 

National Banks, their superiority to 
the old State banks, 484; institu- 
tion of the system, 670. 

National Party. See Greenback 

Party. 

National Republicans, 437, 471 (see 
Whig Party). 

National Road, appropriations for it, 

4-3- 

Naturalization, position of the United 
States, 567. 

Nautilus, the, taken by the Peacock 
after the treaty of peace, and re- 
stored to the British, 375. 

Nauvoo, 111., the Mormon settlement, 
495- 

Naval School, the, established at An- 
napolis, 519. 

Navigation Acts, the, their passage 
and purpose, 67; aimed particu- 
larly at "\^irginia, 80; the Board of 
Trade tries to enforce them, 132; 
they are evaded or disobeyed. 158, 
163; why the colonies submitted to 
them, 168; violent attempts to en- 
force them, 186. 

Navy, the, the privateer navy of the 
colonies in 1763, 153; Congress at- 
tempts to form one, 191 ; successes 
of the vessels built, 240; the pov- 
erty of Congress defeats the at- 
tempt, 241 ; purchase of vessels in 
France, 242; under the Constitu- 
tion, Congress regulates the navy, 
281; and the President is its com- 
mander-in-chief, 282; the poverty 
of the United States still interferes 
with its navy, 313; France forces 
Congress to increase the navy, 319; 
its success, 319; the navy chastises 
the Barbary States, 341-2; why the 
Republicans did not favor a navy, 
344; the navy in 1812, 352; very lit- 
tle expected from it, 365; its bril- 
liant successes, 366-7; their effects, 



Navy — Coiitiiiued. 
369; the lake navies and their suc- 
cess, 378-382; first attempts to use 
torpedoes and steam-vessels, 384; 
subsequent effects of the nava' suc- 
cesses, 401 ; the navy brings the 
Barbary States to a lasting peace, 
404; change of the navy by the 
introduction of steam war-vessels, 
447; a naval force occupies Charles- 
ton harbor, 477; the navy occupies 
the Pacific coast of Mexico, 529; 
and the coast of the Gulf of Mexi- 
co, 535; rescues Koszta, 568; opens 
up Japan, 569; its officers generally 
hold to the Union in 1S61. 616; 
attempts to provision Fort Sumter, 
622; blockades the Southern ports, 
625; captures the forts at Hatteras 
Inlet, Port Royal, and Ship Island, 
636; takes Mason and Slidell, 638; 
a Western river navy formed, 648; 
the wooden vessels give way to 
iron-clads, 651; the navy captures 
Roanoke Island, 652; forces its way 
up the Mississippi, 654; takes New 
Orleans, 655; controls the James 
River, 659; pursues Confederate 
privateers, 672; runs the Vicks- 
burgh batteries and ferries Grant's 
army over the Mississippi, 681; at- 
tacks Fort Sumter without success, 
688; captures the Atlanta, 688; blows 
up the Albemarle, 716; joins in the 
attacks on Fort Fisher, 716; de- 
stroys the Confederate fleet at Mo- 
bile, 718; takes the Alabama, 720; 
the Florida, 720; and the Georgia, 
720; size of the navy during the 
Civil War, 746; in 1889, 834, 844; 
destroys the Spanish fleet at Ma- 
ila, 881; at Santiago, 882. 

Nebraska, part of the Louisiana pur- 
chase, 334; admission, 774. 

Negros (na'gros), 900, 901. 

Nevada (ne-vah'da), part of the Mexi- 
can cession, 544; silver discovered 
in it, 590; admission, 726; influ- 
ence of its silver production on the 
business of the world, 810. 

New Albion, Drake's name for west- 
ern North America, 15. 

New Amsterdam, the Dutch name for 
New York City, 28. 

Newark, N. J., settlement, 119. 

New l^ierne, N. C settlement, 93. 

New Brunswick, N. J., Washington 
retreats through it, 210; becomes 
the British headquarters, 213. 

New Brunswick, province of, bound- 
ary dispute with Maine, 497. 

New England, when the name was 
given, 33, note; its colonies, 33 (see 
Massachusetts, New Hampshire, 
Connecticut, Rhode Island, Ver- 
mont, Maine); the religious feeling 
of its people, 51; their dealings 
with the Quakers, 52; the New Eng- 
land Confederation, 66; their com- 



PRONOUNCING INDEX 

fW° The references are to Sections, not to pages. 



599 



New England — Continut'ii. 

mercial difficulties (sec Navigation 
Acts); with the Indians, 68-g; with 
Andres, 70; with llie French, 71-3; 
growth and character, 74-5; their 
first colleges, 158; its colonies join 
in the siege of Boston, 1S3; slavery 
decays in it, 188; military opera- 
tions in it during the Revolution, 
194-8, 203, 207, 214, 220, 230, 243, 245, 
259; holds to the Federal Party, 
331 ; dissatisfaction with the Em- 
bargo, 345 ; and with the War of 
1812, 355; its coast blockaded, 383; 
part of it taken by the British, 
385; the Hartford Convention, 389- 
390; dislike to the Mexican War, 

Newfoundland (nu'fund-lc7nd), its 
fisheries, 10, 11; Gilbert visits it, 
20; Calvert tries to colonize it, 85; 
the riglit to the fisheries secured 
to Americans, 263; disputes arbi- 
trated, 834. 

New Hampshire (hamp'shur), part of 
the Plymouth Company's grant, 33; 
a royal colony, 35; assigned to John 
Mason, 55; history, 56; one of the 
" small " States in 1787, 279; the 
ninth State to ratify the Constitu- 
tion, 286. 

New Haven (havn), Conn., at first a 
separate colony, 33; settlement, 60; 
joined to Connecticut, 61 ; plundered 
by the British, 245. 

New Jersey, part of the Dutch terri- 
tory, 28; taken from the Dutch by 
the English, 109; becomes a royal 
colony, 118; settlement and history, 
1 19-120; Washington retreats through 
it, 210; the British occupy a part 
of it, 213; the British retreat across 
it, 228; send plundering expedi- 
tions into it, 231; one of the 
" small " States in 1787, 279; trusts 
in, 891. 

New Jersey, College of, 120. 

New London, Conn., attacked by Ar- 
nold, 259. 

New IMadrid (mad'rid), Mo., 648. 

New Mexico, explored by the .Span- 
iards, 13; taken from Mexico, 529; 
part of it claimed by Texas, 553; 
organized as a Territory, 555. 

New Netherland, settled by the 
Dutch, 28; taken by the English, 
109. 

New Orleans (or'le-anz), La., settled 
by the French, 138 (see Louisiana); 
a Spanish city in 1795, 315; the Brit- 
ish expedition against it, 394; the 
city fortified, 398; the expedition 
defeated, 399; importance of the 
city to the Confederates, 653; sur- 
render to Farragut, 655; the yellow 
fever epidemic, 808; exposition, 
824; mob, 849. 

Newport, Capt. Christopher, an agent 
of the London Company, 31. 



Newport, R. I., settlement, 62; taken 
by the British, 214; attacked by 
the Americans and French, 230; 
held by the British, 231; evacuated 
by the British, 247; arrival of a 
French army, 257. 

Newspapers, in 1760, 158; in 1775, 
187; in 1790, 289; the first in the 
northwest, 314; changes about 1835, 
456; improvements in printing and 
news-collecting, 518; in i860, 592. 

New York City, settled by the Dutch, 
28; the negro plot, 115; growth of 
the city, 116; meeting of the Stamp 
Act Congress, 166; Washington ar- 
rives at, 208; taken by the British, 
209; part of the British leave it for 
Philadelphia, 215; return to it, 
228; held by the British for the rest 
of the war, 229; evacuated by them, 
264; the city in 1787, 288; inaugu- 
ration of the new government, 294; 
ceases to be the capital, 299; fear 
of an attack on the city, 384; the 
" great fire," and the Croton Aque- 
duct, 450; World's Fair, 564; the 
Clearing-house, 565; the Brooklyn 
Bridge, 566, note; Centra! Park and 
Astor Library, 595 ; the draft riots, 693. 

New York State, settled by the Dutch 
as New Netherland, 28; conquered 
by the English, 34, 109; a royal 
colony, 35; its name changed to 
New York, 109; size of the colony, 
no; reconquered by Holland, but 
given back, in; the patroon sys- 
tem, 112; history under the Eng- 
lish, 113-117; the French driven out 
of northwestern New York, 148; 
refuses to obey Parliament, 167; 
Parliament attempts to punish it, 169; 
the road into Canada, 199; the 
Tories in New York, 207; Bur- 
goyne's expedition, 218-222; the 
whole State, except New York 
City and part of Long Island, held 
by the Americans for the rest of 
the war, 229; the western boundary, 
271; cession of the western claims, 
273; a "small State'' in 1787, 279; 
ratifies the Constitution, 286; the 
State in 1790, 291; in 1812, 354; 
military operations in the State, 
362-4, 380, 382, 391 ; western New 
York after the war, 405; the Erie 
Canal, 424; attempt to aid the re- 
bellion in Canada, 496; the " anti- 
rent " disturbances, 514; the elec- 
toral vote of the State in 1844, 515; 
in 1848, 548; its electoral vote in 
1884 and i888,_826, 840. 

Nez Perces (na parc'saz), an Indian 
tribe, 807. 

Niagara, the, captures the Georgia, 
720. 

Niagara, the. Perry's new flag-ship, 

381- 
Nicaragua, 834; Nicaragua Canal 
Commission, 895; England re- 



6oo 



PRONOUNCING INDEX 



The references are to Sections, not to pages. 



Nicaragua — Continued. 
nounces all claims to a share in the 
control of the canal, 896; construc- 
tion of the canal called for by the 
Republican platform of 1900, 906. 

Nichols (.nik'uls), Col. Richard, first 
English governor of New York, 109. 

Non-Intercourse Act, the, takes the 
place of the Embargo, 345; revived 
against Great Britain, 349. 

Norfolk (nor'fuk), Va., attacked by 
the British, 203, 245; the southern 
end of the Confederate line, 628; a 
Confederate navy yard, 649, 659. 

Normal schools, their institution, 455. 

Norristown, I'a., 217. 

North Carolina, possibly sighted by 
Cabot, 10; Raleigh's attempts to 
colonize, 23; part of the London 
Company's grant, 32; a royal col- 
ony. 35. 9- (see Carolina) ; settle- 
ment of North Carolina, 93; its 
government, 94; manner of life of 
its people, 96; military operations 
in it during the Revolution, 250, 
251, 253; western claims, 271; ceded 
to the United States, 273; refuses at 
first to ratify the Constitution, 286; 
ratifies it in 1790, 302; secedes, 
626; one of the Confederate States, 
628; military operations in, 636, 652, 
716, 728-9, 734; reconstructed and 
readmitted, 762. 

North Dakota, 835. 

North Point, battle of, 387. 

Northwest Passage, the, anxiety of 
our forefathers to find it, 21 ; what 
has taken its place, 783. 

Northwest Territory, the, claimed by 
Virginia for herself, 271 ; by the 
other States for the United States, 
272; ceded to the United States, 
273; unsettled in 1786, 291; settle- 
ment begun by land companies, 292; 
Congress arranges a government for 
it, 274; the Indian title got rid of, 
308; the British possession aban- 
doned, 309; the Indians defeated, 
350; its population in 1812, 353; 
roads, 354; the whole Territory sur- 
rendered by Hull, 356; regained by 
the Americans, 361. 

Norwalk (nor'wak), Conn., attacked 
by the British, 214, 245. 

Nova Scotia, settled by the French, 
19 (see Acadia); taken and held 
by the English, 71-2, 146; a refuge 
for the Tories, 266. 

Nueces (noo-a'sez) River, the, 524. 

Nullification, 475-7. 

Ocean Steamers, one crosses the At- 
lantic in 1819, 337, note; no more 
until 1838, 447. 

Ocean telegraph, final success, 772. 

Office-holders, Federal, discharged 
under Jackson for not belonginer to 
the successful party, 467; the Ten- 
ure of Ofifice Act, 766; the natural 



Office-holders— Co nit nued. 
results of the system, 794; reforms 
in it, 819. 

Ogdensburgh, N. Y., 139, 363. 

Ogeechee (o-ge'che) River, the, 713. 

Oglethorpe (o'gl-thorp). Gen. James, 
the founder of Georgia, 103; death, 
106, note. 

Ohio, claimed by Virginia, 271; set- 
tlement, 291, 314; under the Ordi- 
nance of 1787, 274; the Indian title 
got rid of, 308; growth of the State, 
313; difficulties of early settlement 
in it, 314; admission, 336. 

Ohio Company, of 1750, 141; of 1787, 
292. 

Oil. See Petroleum. 

Okechobee (o-ke-cho'be), battle of, 
463. 

"Old Dominion," the, a name for 
Virginia, 80, note. 

(Oklahoma, 846. 

" Old Hickory," a name for Jackson, 
441. 

" Old Ironsides," a name for the 
Constitution, 366, note. 

Oliver, Andrew, 169. 

Olney, Richard, 863. 

Olustee (o-lus'te), battle of, 715. 

Omaha (o'ma-haw), Neb., 783. 

Omnibus Bill, the, 554. 

Oneidas (o-ni'dnz), an Indian tribe, 3. 

Onondagas (o-non-daw'gaz), an In- 
dian tribe, 3. 

Orders in Council, adopted, 343; not 
openly surrendered by the treaty 
of Ghent, 401. 

Ordinance of 1787, the, 274. 

Oregon (or'e-gon) (see Oregon Coun- 
try), admission, 587; Indian war 
in it, 785. 

Oregon Country, the, explored by 
Lewis and Clarke, 335; Americans 
begin to settle in it, 503; Great 
Britain claims it, 504; the claim 
compromised, 523. 

Orinoco (o-ri-no'ko) River, the, 8. 

Oriskany (o-ris'k(7-nI), battle of, 220. 

Osceola (os-e-o'la), a Florida Indian 
chief, 463. 

Ossabaw Sound, 714. 

Ostend (6s-tend'), Circular, the, 570 

Otis, Gen. E. S., in the Philippines, 
900. 

Otis (o'tis), James, a Massachusetts 
orator, 165; becomes insane, 169. 

Pacific Railroads, Congress orders 
surveys in 1853, 562; the work on 
the Central begun in 1862 and fin- 
ished in 1869, 783; the Northern 
and Southern Pacific, 783; scandals 
connected with them, 794, note; 
connection with the government 
ended, 890. 

Packenham (pak'n-nm). Sir Edward, 
in command of the British expedi- 
tion against New Orleans, 399; de- 
feated and killed, 399. 



PRONOUNCING INDEX 



6ol 



Z^^ The references are to Sections, not to pages. 



Pago-Pago (pa'go-pa'go), a Samoan 
harbor, 894. 

Paine (panr), Thomas, 204. 

Palmer, Gen. John M., nominated for 
President, 865. 

Palo Alto (pah'lo ahl'to), battle of, 526. 

Palos (pah'los), Columbus's point of 
departure, 6. 

Panama (pan-(7-mah') Canal, 834. 

Panay (pa-nay'), 900. 

Panic, meaning of the term, 485; the 
panic of 1837, 496; of 1857, 585; of 
1873. 781, 794, 804; of 1893, 855. 

Paper Money or Currency, danger of 
excessive issues, J33; excessive is- 
sues by the Continental Congress, 
233-4; State paper, 286; State banks, 
484; results of their issues, 485; 
paper in the Civil War, 670; in the 
Confederacy, 6go, 721 ; demands of the 
Greenback Party, 797; abandon- 
ment of an exclusively paper cur- 
rency, 813. 

Parliament, the governing body of 
England, 40; abolishes the mon- 
archy for a time, 41 ; defects of its 
membership, 160; claims the right 
to tax the colonies, 161 ; gives no 
representation to the colonies, 162; 
its regulation of the colonies, 163; 
passes the Stamp Act, 164; repeals 
it, 167; still refuses representation 
to the colonies, 168; lays a commer- 
cial tax on the colonies, 169; pro- 
voked with the resistance to it, 172; 
reduces the tax to a tea tax, 173; 
tries to punish resistance, 175; war 
between Parliament and Congress, 
190; proposes conciliation, 202; not 
mentioned in the Declaration of In- 
dependence, 206; offers representa- 
tion to the colonies, zzy; compels 
the king to make peace with the 
United States, 262. 

Parties, formation of, in 1787, 285; 
only one party left in 1789, 303; 
first great change in party con- 
trol of the government, 330; only 
one party left in i8i6, 409, 427; 
it begins to split, 433; divides into 
two parties, 437; party excitement 
under Jackson, 466; party changes 
about 1850, 560; re-formation of 
parties, 576; the parties in i860, 
608; on the war, 723; on reconstruc- 
tion, 768; on support of recon- 
structed governments, 796; de- 
cadence of party differences, 797; 
on Free Trade and Protection, 826, 
838, 854; on Silver (see party names: 
Democratic, Republican, Federalist, 
Whig, National Republican, Liber- 
ty, Free-Soil, American, Liberal 
Republican, Greenback, People's). 

Patents, issue of, 312; their effect on 
invention, 338; on the wealth of 
the country, 591. 

Paterson, N. J., growth from manu- 
factures, 450. 



Patriot War, the, in Canada, 496. 

Patroons, the system introduced by 
the Dutch, 112; its effects in the 
Revolution, 207; end of the sys- 
tem, 514. 

Peacock, the, an English war-vessel, 
svink by the Hornet, 370; an Ameri- 
can war-vessel, takes the Epcrvier, 
374; and the Nautilns, 375. 

Pea Ridge, battle of, 647. 

Peekskill, N. Y., the end of Wash- 
ington's retreat from New York, 
209; Lee left in charge of it, 210; 
too strong for the British, 218; 
Washington holds it throughout the 
war, 229. 

Peel, Sir Robert, and the police, 595, 
note. 

Pclicnu, the, takes the Argus, 372. 

Pemberton, Gen. J. C, in command 
at Vicksburgh, 680; surrenders to 
Grant, 682. 

Pendleton, George H., nominated for 
\'^ice-President, 723. 

Poiguin, the, taken by the Hornet, 
375- 

Peninsular Campaign, the, 659-63. 

Penitentiaries, a reform in the pun- 
ishment of criminals, 461. 

Penn, William, obtains a grant of 
land for a colony, 121 ; comes to 
America and settles Philadelphia, 
123; settles the government, 124; 
connection of his family with the 
colony and State, 125. 

Pennsylvania, soil conquered from 
the Dutch, 34; a proprietary colony, 
35; granted to Penn, 121; settle- 
ment of the colony, 123; the govern- 
ment settled, 124; growth of the 
colony, 127; Braddock's march 
through the colony, 146; military 
operations during the Revolution, 
210, 216-17, -3-! insurrection in the 
western part of the State, 307; 
coal, 291, 338; railroads, 429; iron, 
291, 511; military operations during 
the Civil War, 675-7; railroad riots, 
806, 853. 

Pennsylvania Hall, destroyed by a 
mob,' 493. 

Pennsylvania, University of, founded, 
126. 

Pensacola (pen-so-ko'ln), Fla., seized 
by Jackson, 398, 414; fort saved, 
617. 

Pensions, to Revolutionary soldiers, 
234, note; to Union soldiers, 747; 
amoimt of, 748; vetoes, 830; De 
pendent Pension Bill, 844. 

" People's Party," 826, note, 865, 870, 
go6. 

Peoria (pe-o'ri-o). 111., a French post, 
139; taken by the Americans, 361. 

Peorias, an Indian tribe, 3. 

Pequots (pe'kwotz), a Connecticut 
tribe of Indians, 59. 

Perry, Commodore M. C, opens up 
Japan, 569. 



6o2 



PRONOUNCING INDEX 



{fW° The references are to Sections, not to pages. 



Perry, Commodore O. H., captures a 
British fleet off Sandusky, on Lake 
Erie, 381. 

Perryville, battle of, 644. 

Perth Amboy, N. J., settlement of, 
119. 

Peru (pe-roo'), an Indian empire, 2; 
conquered by Spain, 7. 

Petersburgh, Va., threatened by But- 
ler, 700; reached by Grant, 704; its 
fortifications, 704; beseiged by 
Grant, 730; captured, 732. 

Petition, right of, impeded by Con- 
gress, 494. 

Petroleum, not known in 1790, 288; 
in Pennsylvania, 511, 590. 

Philadelphia, settlement, 123; growth, 
126; the taxed tea, 174; First Con- 
tinental Congress, 177; Second Con- 
tinental Congress, 191 ; abandoned 
by Congress, 211; Howe moves tow- 
ard it by sea, 215; takes it, 216; 
makes it his winter quarters,^ 216; 
Clinton, his successor, leaves it for 
New York, 228; the revolted troops 
set out for it, 239; Washington and 
Rochambeau pass through it, 258; 
the Convention of 1787, 279; the 
city in 1787, 288; time of travel to 
New York, 290; made the national 
capital for ten years, 299; capital 
removed to Washington, 324; 
slavery riot, 493; threatened by 
Lee, 66s; relieved by the battle of 
Antietam, 666; again threatened by 
Lee, 675; relieved by the battle of 
Gettysburgh, 677; the Centennial 
celebration, 787. 

P/ij7(irfi-//'/n(7, the, captured and burned, 
34-2- 

Philip, King, his struggle against the 
whites, 68. 

Philippines, the, transferred to the 
United States by Spain, 885, 900; 
military operations in, 900; control 
left in the President's hands by 
Congress, 901; establishment of 
municipal governments, 901; pres- 
ent conditions in, 901; influence on 
Porto Rican tariff question, 904; 
their retention gives rise to the 
question of " expansion," 905. 

Phillips, Gen., in command of the 
British forces in Virginia, 252. 

Phccbe (fe'be), the, aids in capturhig 
the Essex, 373. 

Pickens, Col. Andrew, an American 
officer in South Carolina, 245. 

Pierce (peersf or pursi?), Franklin, 
elected President, 563. 

Pike's Peak, discovery of gold, 590. 

Pilgrims, the, the first settlers of 
I'lymouth, 46. 

Pinckney, Charles Cotesworth, nomi- 
nated for President, 323, 339, note. 

Pirates in New York, 114. 

I'itcairn (pit'karn), Major John, at 
Lexington, 181. 

Pitt, William, his management of the 



Pitt, William — Continued. 
French and Indian War, 148; favors 
colonial representation in Parlia- 
ment, 167. 

Pittsburgh Landing, battle of, 642. 

Pittsburgh, Pa., unsettled in 1745, 
127; originally a fort of the Ohio 
Company, taken by the French, 
143; retaken by the English and 
named Pittsburgh, 148; the Whis- 
key Insurrection, 307; the first 
steamboat on the Ohio River, 337; 
the railroad riots, 806. 

Plattsburgh, battle of, 382. 

Pleasant Hill, battle of, 715. 

Ploughs, in 1787, 289 (see Agricultural 
Machinery). 

Plymouth (plim'uth), part of the 
Plymouth Company's grant, 33; lo- 
cation and settlement, 45; history, 
46; leaders, 47; union with Massa- 
chusetts Bay, 54. 

Plymouth Company, the, chartered, 
25; loses its charter, 33. 

Plymouth, N. C, the Albemarle blown 
up, 716. 

Poe, Edgar A., his literary work, 458. 

Foicticrs (poi-teerz'), the, captures the 
Wasp and Frolic, 368. 

Police, a new system introduced, 595. 

Polk (poke), James K., elected Presi- 
dent, 515; orders Taylor to the Rio 
Grande, 524; blamed by the Whigs 
for the Mexican War, 527; death, 558. 

Polygamy, having more than one wife 
at the same time, practised by the 
Mormons, 495; contrary to law in 
the Territories, 586; decreases, 822; 
virtually suppressed, 862. 

Pontiac (pon'ti-ak), an Indian chief, 

Pope's campaign, 664. 

Population. See Census. 

Populists. See People's Party. 

Porter, Admiral D. D., at New Or- 
leans, 716. 

Porter, Capt. David, in command of 
the Essex, 366, 373. 

Port Hudson, La., its fortifications, 
655; its surrender, 682. 

Porto Rico, occupied by the Ameri- 
can army, 883; ceded to the United 
States by Spain, 885; transferred to 
the United States, 903; administra- 
tive and legal reforms, 903; tariff 
for, 904. 

Port Royal, N. S., a French strong- 
hold, taken and kept by the Eng- 
lish, y2. 

Port Royal, S. C, the French colony, 
18; reached by an English colony, 
97; captured by the Union fleet, 
636; a harbor for the blockaders, 
637; an expedition sent from it to 
Florida, 715. 

Portsmouth, N. H., settlement, 55. 

Portsmouth, R. I., settlement, 62. 

I'ortsmouth, Va., plundered by the 
British, 245. 



PRONOUNCING INDEX 603 

85S^ The references are to Sections, not to pages. 



Portugal, explores the west coast of 
Africa, 4; refuses aid to Columbus, 
5; agreement with Spain, u; pays for 
injuries to American commerce, 464. 

Post-office, in the colonies, 163; un- 
der direction of Congress, 281; the 
Post-ofifice Department, 296; in- 
crease of, 452. 

Potomac (po-to'mak) River, the, the 
first Maryland settlement, 86; its 
upper country unsettled in 1750, 142; 
the Union line in i86i, 629; Banks 
driven up to it, 662; Lee and Mc- 
Clellan cross it into Maryland, 665; 
recross it into Virginia, 666; Lee 
again crosses it, 675; recrosses it 
into X'irginia, 678. 

Potomac, Army of the, organized, 
633; transferred to the Peninsula, 
657; divided by the Chickahominy, 
659; fights the Seven Days' Bat- 
tles, 663; transferred back to the 
front of Washington, 664; fights the 
battle of Antietam, 666; Fredericks- 
burgh, 667; Chancellorsville, 674; 
Gettysburg!!, 677; Grant takes com- 
mand, 698; fights the battles of the 
Wilderness, 701; beseiges Peters- 
burgh, 704, 730; takes it, 732; pur- 
sues and captures Lee's army, 733; 
is reviewed at Washington, 735. 

Pottawattomies (pot-a-wot'a-miz), an 
Indian tribe, 3. 

Prescott, Col. William, in command 
of Bunker Hill, 194. 

Prescott, William H., his literary 
work, 458. 

President, the, his legislative power, 
281; executive powers, 282; appoint- 
ing power, 283 (see Tenure of Office 
Act, Civil Service) ; mode of elec- 
tion, 295; veto power, 469, note; 
succession, 818, 831 (see Impeach- 
ment). (For list of Presidents, see 
Table of Contents.) 

President, the, and the Little Belt, 
349, note; captured by a British 
fleet, 375. 

Presque Isle (presk eel), Pa., a 
French post, 142. 

Press Associations introduced, 518. 

Prima Vista (pre'ma vees'to), 10. 

Princeton College, founded, 120. 

Princeton, N. J., Washington passes 
through it in retreat, 210; returns 
and takes it, 212. 

Printing, in Virginia, 84; in Philadel- 
phia, 126; first press in America, 
158; improvements in, 518. 

Prisoners of war, their sufferings in 
the Revolution, 232; in Confederate 
prisons, 725; deaths, 747. 

Prisons, the former brutal system, 
461 ; reformation, 465. 

Prison-ships, 232. 

Privateers, in 1760, 153; in the Revo- 
lution, 197, 240, 243; definition, 240; 
refusal to allow France to fit out, 
306; in the War of 1812, 376. 



Privateers, Confederate, why they 
were allowed to make captures, 625, 
627; their destruction of American 
commerce, 672, 696, 720; capture 
of three of them, 720 (see Alabama 
Claims). 

Proctor, Gen. Henry, in command of 
the British forces in the West, 
359-60; defeated, 361. 

Prohibition Party, 826, note, 854. 

Proprietors, 35. 

Protection, why it was first demand- 
ed, 406 (see Free Trade, Tariff); 
definition, and argument for, 425; 
Congress adopts it in 1824, 426; sup- 
ported by Clay and Adams (see 
American System) ; opposed by 
Jackson, 470, 476; supported by the 
Whig Party, 471 ; opposed by the 
South, 436, 474, 605; gradually 
abandoned by Congress after 1833, 
478; again adopted in 1842, 501; 
again abandoned in 1846, 521 ; re- 
sumed in 1861, 691; still main- 
tained, 825; attitude of the parties 
in 1888, 836; in 1892, 854; reduced by 
the Wilson Bill, 859; increased by 
the Dingley Bill, 870; enforced 
against Porto Rico, 904; upheld by 
the Republican platform in 1900, 906. 

Protectorate. See Commonwealth. 

Providence, R. I., part of the Plym- 
outh Company's grant, Z2\ settle- 
ment, 62; the Gaspce affair, 171. 

Public schools, provision for them in 
Ordinance of 1787, 274; established 
in the States, 455, 465; in i860, 593. 

Puebla (poo-a'blah), Mex., taken by 
Scott, 542. 

Puget's (pu'jet's) Sound, 783. 

Pulaski (pu-las'ki), Casimir, joins the 
American army, 214; death, 244. 

Pullman, 111., 858. 

Puritans, the, support the Common- 
wealth, 41; not separated from the 
Church of England, 48; found the 
colony of Massachusetts Bay, 48. 

Quakers, the, why they were perse- 
cuted in Massachusetts, 52; Penn 
obtains a colony for them, \2\; why 
they had been persecuted i:i Eng- 
land, 122. 

Quebec (kwe-bek'), attempt to settle 
it, 18; successful, 19; a French 
stronghold, 72; taken by Wolfe, 
151; one of the four governmental 
divisions of the territory ceded to 
England by the Peace of Paris, 154; 
repulses the Americans, 200. 

Quebec Act, the, 175. 

(jueenstown Heights, battle of, 357. 

Raids, of Jackson and Stuart, 662; of 
Morgan, 684; against Sherman, 707. 

Railroads, how they have given value 
to the Louisiana purchase, 334; put 
an end to the National Road, 423; 
Trevithick's and Stephenson's en- 



6o4 



PRONOUNCING INDEX 



The references are to Sections, not to pages. 



Railroads — Continued. 
gines, 429; their effect on the 
American people, 442; American en- 
gines, 443; increase of railroads, 
444; their advantages, 445; use of 
anthracite coal, 446; assist immi- 
gration, 452 (see Pacific Railroads); 
effects in improving roads and 
bridges, 566; the panic of 1857, 585; 
increase in thirty years, 588; effects 
on the West, 589; defects in the 
South, 596; damage in the Civil 
War, 690, 731 (see Raids); rail- 
road-building in Grant's first ad- 
ministration, 780; panic of 1873, 781; 
the Pacific Railroad system, 783; 
end of the panic, 804; railroad 
strikes and riots, 806. 

Raisin, battle of the river, 359. 

Raleigh (raw'li). Sir Walter, his per- 
sonality and services, 22; attempts 
to colonize North Carolina, 23. 

Randolph, Edmund, Attorney-Gen- 
eral, 296. 

Randolph, John, on the terrors of 
slave insurrection, 603. 

Ranger, the, an American war-vessel, 
240. 

Ravifdon, Lord, in command of the 
British in South Carolina, 254. 

Reaping-machine, 338, 448. 

Reciprocity, 842. 

Reconcentrados (ray-con-sen-trah'- 

dos), the, 874, 875. 

Reconstruction, its difficulties, 753; 
the President's plan, 754-6; the 
treatment of the freedmen, 758; 
Southern members not admitted to 
Congress, 759; Tennessee recon- 
structed and readmitted, 760; the 
Republicans retain control of Con- 
gress, 760; form their plan of re- 
construction, 760; and pass it, 761; 
six additional States reconstructed 
and readmitted, 762; the four re- 
maining States reconstructed and 
readmitted, 788; disorder in the 
reconstructed States, 789-90; use of 
Federal troops to suppress it, 791; 
what reconstruction had done for 
the freedmen, 793; the parties on re- 
construction, 795-6; the use of 
Federal troops abandoned, 802; how 
far the plan of reconstruction has 
failed, 804. 

Red River, the, visited by De Soto, 
14; by Banks, 715. 

Reed, Thomas B., Speaker of the 
House of Representatives, 870. 

Regulators, the, fight Governor 
Tryon, 94. 

Reid, Capt. S. C, in command of the 
General Armstrong, 376. 

Reid, Whitelaw, 854. 

Reindeer, the, taken by the Wasp, 374. 

Remonetization of silver, 812. 

Removal of the deposits, 469. 

Representation of the States in Con- 
gress, 281. 



Representation, slave, adopted into 
the Constitution, 284; effects, 508. 

Representatives, House of, legislative 
powers, 281; powers of impeach- 
ment, 282; elects a President, 323, 
427; impeaches Johnson, 767; re- 
fuses to give the Cubans belligerent 
rights, 873. 

Reprisal, the, an American war-vessel, 
240. 

Republican Party (of 1792), the, its 
formation, 303; its purposes, 304; 
change in views, 346; opposes the 
Alien and Sedition laws, 321; elects 
Jefferson and Burr, 323; obtains 
control of the government in 1801, 
331; re-elects Jefferson, 339; opposes 
a navy, 344; successful in 1808, 346; 
in 1812, 351; in 1816, 409; the only 
party left in 1820, 413 (see Demo- 
cratic Party). 

Republican Party (of 1856), the, its 
formation, 576; obtains control of 
the House of Representatives, 580; 
defeated in 1856, 582; its attitude in 
i860, 608; successful in i860, 609; 
in 1864, 723; its attitude on recon- 
struction, 759; successful in 1868, 
768; in 1872, 796; in 1876-7, 801; 
in 1888, 840; defeated in 1884, 826; 
in 1892, 854; successful in 1896, 865; 
in 1900, 906. 

Repudiation, meaning of the term, 
489. 

Resaca de la Palma (ra-sah'kah da 
lah pahl'mah), battle of, 526. 

Resaca, battle of, 706. 

Restoration, the English, 42. 

Resumption of specie payments, 813. 

Returning Boards, 798. 

Revenge, the, war-vessel, 240. 

Revenue, the Federal, its trifling 
amount under the Articles of Con- 
federation, 275; provided for in the 
Constitution, 281; raised by duties 
on imported goods and on some 
domestic products. 299; by a whis- 
key tax, 307; increase of, 333; de- 
crease during the War of 1812, 354- 
5; increase after the peace, 407; 
deposited in the Bank of the United 
States, 408; increase, 1831-5, 452; 
more than the needs of government 
required, 453; removal from the 
Bank, 469; the panic of 1837 de- 
stroys the revenue, 487; during the 
Civil War, 748; influence on the 
tariff question, 825; tobacco and in- 
toxicating liquors alone subject to 
taxation, 836. 

Revolt of the American troops, 239. 

Revolution, the American, its first 
blood, 181; the results, 183; the war 
at first against Parliament, 190-1; 
in New England, 194; independ- 
ence, 204-6; in the North, 207- 
23, 228-32, 237-3g; aid from France, 
224-7; the war on the ocean, 240-2; 
in the South, 244-61; peace, 262-6. 



PRONOUNCING INDEX 

The references are to Sections, not to pages. 



605 



Revolution, the English, 42. 

Revolution, the French, 43, 305. 

Rhode Island, part of the I'lymouth 
Company's grant, 33; a charter col- 
ony, 35; the banishment of Wil- 
liams, 51; settlement, 6_'; refused 
admission to the New England 
Union, 66; the " swamp fight," 
69; the Gaspcc affair, 171; the Col- 
lege of, 187; military operations in, 
214, 230-2, 247, 259; no western claims, 
271; not represented in the Federal 
Convention, 278; refuses to ratify 
the Constitution, 286; ratifies, 297; 
the Dorr Rebellion, 513. 

Rice, in South Carolina, 98; a South- 
ern product, 316. 

Richard, the, 242. 

Richmond, Va., Burr's trial, 340; 
capital of the Confederate States, 
628; threatened by McDowell, 632; 
its fortifications, 633, 704; threat- 
ened by way of the Peninsula, 657; 
relieved by the Seven Days' Battles, 
663; again threatened by way of 
Fredericksburgh, 667; by way of 
Chancellorsville, 674; by Butler, 
700; cut oflf from Lynchburgh by 
Sheridan, 731; captured by Grant, 
732- 

Rich Mountain, battle of, 630. 

Rio Grande (re'o grahn'da), the, 524. 

Riots, draft, 693; railroad, 806; Chi- 
nese, 815; Cincinnati, 823. 

Ripley, Gen. James W., an officer in 
the American Army, 364; at Lun- 
dy's Lane, 392. 

Rivers and harbors, 434. 

Roads, in 1750, 133; in 1787, 290; 
turnpike roads, 312; roads in Ohio 
in 1790, 314; roads in 1812, 354; on 
the great lakes, 379; in 1824, 422; 
the National Road, 423; the Ameri- 
can System, 434; how railroads have 
influenced them, 442, 566. 

Roanoke (ro-a-noke') Island, N. C, 
the scene of Raleigh's colonies, 
23; Newport sent thither, 31; Con- 
federate forts captured, 652. 

Robertson, James, a Tennessee pio- 
neer, 157, note. 

Robinson, John, pastor of the Pil- 
grims in Holland, 47. 

Rochambeau (ro-shahn(g)-bo'). Count 
de, lands with an army at Newport, 
257; takes part in the capture of 
Cornwallis, 260. 

Rochester, N. Y., not on the maps in 
1812, 354; its growth, 405. 

Rome, N. Y., 220. 

Roosevelt, Theodore, nominated for 
Vice-President, 906. 

Root, Elihu, Secretary of War, 
898. 

Rosecrans (rozc'krans). Gen. W. S., 
in command of the Union forces in 
West Virginia, 630; at Murfrees- 
boro, 645, 679; pursues Bragg, 685; 
at Chickamauga, 685. 



Ross, Gen. Robert, killed at Balti- 
more, 387. 

Rules, struggle over the, 841. 

Rush, Richard, nominated for Vice- 
President, 438. 

Russia, mediates between Great Brit- 
ain and the United States, 400; 
sells Alaska to the United States, 
773; peace proposals, 897. 

Rutgers College, 187. 

Sabine (sa-been') Cross Roads, bat- 
tle of, 715. 

Sackett's Harbor, N. Y., attacked by 
the British, 362. 

Sacramento (sak-rn-men'to) River, 
discovery of gold on, 549. 

Sacs and Foxes, 3. 

Sagasta ministry, the, policy in Cuba, 
874. 

St. Alban's, Vt., plundered by a 
party from Canada, 724, note. 

St. Augustine (aw-gus-teen'), Fla., 
founded, 17; captured by a force 
from South Carolina, loi ; besieged 
by Oglethorpe, 106; captured by 
the Union forces, 652. 

St. Clair's defeat, 308. 

St. Genevieve (jen-e-veev'). Mo., 155. 

St. John, J. P., nominated for Presi- 
dent, 826, note. 

St. Kitt's, W. I., 319. 

St. Lawrence, the river, discovered, 
11; held by the French, 18-19. 

St. Louis (loo'Is), Mo., founded, 155; 
riots, 806; trust conference, 8gi. 

St. Paul, Minn., 451. 

Salem (sfl'lem), Slass., settled,- 48; 
witchcraft, 53. 

Salt, found at Syracuse, N. Y., 511. 

Saltillo (sahl-teel'yo), Mex., 532. 

Salt Lake City, founded by the Mor- 
mons, 5S6, 862. 

Samoa, 834, 894. 

Sampson, Rear-Admiral Wm. T., in 
command at Santiago, 882; bom- 
bards San Juan, Porto Rico, 883. 

San Antonio, Mex., 539; Tex., 531. 

San Domingo, attempt to annex it, 
778, 794- 

Sandusky (san-dus'ki), O., Fort .Ste- 
phenson, 360; Perry's victory, 381. 

Sandwich Islands, proposed annexa- 
tion of, 852. 

Sandy Hook, N. J., 213, 228. 

San Francisco, Cal., its fine harbor, 
528; taken by the American fleet, 
529; sudden growth of the city, 
S89; the Pacific Railroad system, 
783.^ 

San Gabriel, battle of, 529. 

Sanitary Commission, the, 692. 

San Jacinto (ja-sin'to), battle of, 506. 

San Jacinto, the, arrests the Trent, 
638. 

San Juan (sahn Hoo-ahn'), Cuba, the 
battle of, 882. 

San Juan, Porto Rico, bombarded, 



6o6 PRONOUNCING INDEX 

fW° The references are to Sections, not to pages. 



San Juan de Ulloa (sahn Hoo-ahn' da 

ool-yo'ah), 535. 
San Salvador (sahn sahl-vah-dore'), 6. 
Santa Anna, commands the Mexican 

troops in Texas, 506; at Buena 

Vista, 532; at Cerro Gordo, 536; 

flees from the city of Mexico, 542. 
Santa Fe (san'ta fa), N. M., founded, 

17; taken by the American forces, 

5-29- 

Santiago (sahnt-e-ah'go) campaign, 
the, 88j. 

Saratoga, Burgoyne's surrender at, 
222. 

Sault Ste. Marie (soo san(g) mah-re), 
French settlement, 137. 

Savage's Station, battle of, 663. 

Savannah, Ga., settled, 104; taken by 
the British, 244; held by them 
through the Revolution, 254; evacu- 
ated, 264; taken by Sherman, 714; 
he leaves it on his march north- 
ward, 728. 

Savannah, the, steams across the At- 
lantic, 337, note. 

Saybrook, Conn., settlement, 57. 

Scarboro, The Countess of, taken by 
Paul Jones's fleet, 242. 

Schenectady (sken-ek'tn-dT), N. Y., a 
frontier settlement, no; founded, 
117; still on the frontier in 1787, 
291. 

Schley (shll), Rear-Adminal W. S., 
at Santiago, 882. 

Schools. See Public Schools. 

Schuyler (ski'Ier), Gen. Philip, in 
command of the American forces in 
Canada, 200; against Burgoyne, 218; 
succeeded by Gates, 221 ; the credit 
due to him goes to Gates, 223. 

Scott, W'infield, his services in 1814, 
364; at the battle of Chippewa, 392; 
wounded at Lundy's Lane, 392; 
services in Maine, 497; sent to 
Mexico, 534; takes Vera Cruz, 535; 
marches to the city of Mexico, 
537; takes Mexico, 542; nominated 
for President, 563; in command of 
the Union armies, 629; retired, 633. 

Screw propeller, invented, 447. 

Seals, taking of, in Bering Sea, 848. 

Search, the right of, asserted by 
Great Britain, 343; not expressly 
given up in 1815, 401; resisted by 
Great Britain in 1861, 638. 

Secession, the argument for it, 475; 
threatened in 1850, 552; not probable 
in 1856, 583; South Carolina secedes 
in i860, 610; the secessionists in 
other States, 611; their arguments 
for secession, 612; the first seces- 
sion of 1861, 613; the second, or 
border State, secession of 1861, 626. 

Sections, the, produced by slavery, 
416; their positions on the Ameri- 
can System, 435; as to Abolition, 
492; as to Texas, 507; as to slave 
representation, 508; as to the Mexi- 
can acquisition, 545; as to state 



Sections — Continued. 

sovereignty and secession, 552; as 
to California, 553; increasing influ- 
ence of slavery, 571; their positions 
as to the Kansas-Nebraska Act, 575; 
as to Kansas, 578; their final posi- 
tions, 605-7; as to the Civil War, 
749; as to reconstruction, 753. 

Sedition Law, the, 321. 

Seminoles (sem'i-nolz), the, a Florida 
tribe, 414. 

Semmes (semz), Capt. Raphael, 720. 

Senate, the, its formation, 281 ; its 
legislative powers, 281 ; its execu- 
tive powers, 282; increased by the 
Tenure of Office Act, 766; impeach- 
ment of Johnson, 767; passes reso- 
lution giving the Cubans belligerent 
rights, 873. 

Senecas (sen'e-kaz), 3. 

Separatists, a name for the Pilgrims, 

45- 

Scrapis (se-ra'pis), the, taken by the 
Richard, 242. 

Sergeant (sahr'jent), John, 473. 

Sewall, Arthur, nominated for Vice- 
President, and defeated, 865. 

Seward (soo'erd), William H., an an- 
tislavery leader, 558; wounded, 737. 

Sewing-machine, 517. 

Seven Days' Battles, 663. 

Seven Pines, battle of, 660. 

Seymour (sf''mur), Horatio, nomi- 
nated for President, 768. 

Shatter, Gen. Wm. R., in command 
of land forces at Santiago, 882. 

Sliannon, the, takes the Chesapeake, 
372- 

Sharpsburgh, battle of, 666. 

Shawnees (shaw-neez'), 3- 

Shays's Rebellion, 276. 

Shenandoah (shen-nn-do'ah) valley, 
the, held by Johnston, 632; Jackson 
drives Banks out of it, 662; Lee 
passes through it, 675; Early passes 
through it, 703; is beaten by Sheri- 
dan, 705; Sheridan passes through 
it on his w&y to Grant, 731. 

Sheridan, Gen. Philip H., beats 
Early, 705; cuts ofif Richmond from 
its western supports and joins 
Grant, 731. 

Sherman, John, Secretary of State, 
869. 

Sherman, Roger, a member of the 
Continental Congress, 192; on the 
committee to draft the Declaration, 
206. 

Sherman, Gen. Wm. T., one of 
Grant's trusted officers, 679; at the 
Yazoo River, 681 ; moves toward 
Atlanta, 706; leaves Hood to 
Thomas, 710; burns .Atlanta, 712; 
marches through Georgia, 713: takes 
Savannah, 714; marches northward 
to Goldsboro, 728-9; seizes Raleigi'., 
and receives Johnston's surrender, 
734; results of his march, 745. 

Shiloh, battle of, 642. 



PRONOUNDING INDEX 
The references are to Sections, not to pages. 



607 



Ship Island. Miss., 636, 654. 

Shreveport, La., 715. 

Sigel (so'gf'l). Gen. Franz, in the 
Shenandoah valley, 700; defeated, 
703- 

Sigsbee, Capt. Chas. D., in command 
of the Maine, 877. 

Silver, discovered in Nevada, 590; 
large yield, 780; decline in its value 
compared with gold, 810; demone- 
tized, 811; remonetized, 812; Act 
of July 14, 1890, 843; again demone- 
tized, 856; '■ free silver " in 1896, 
865 ; in 1900, 906. 

Sioux (soo) wars, 673, 785. 

Sioux Falls, S. D., 906. 

Siriiis, the, 447. 

Sitting Bull, 785. 

Si.x Nations, 3, 73. 

Skenesboro, N. Y., 219. 

Slavery, introduced in Virginia and 
maintained by the English kings, 
39; forbidden in Vermont, 188; 
slavery in New England, 75; in 
Georgia, 105; in New York, 115; in 
1775. 188; an element of weakness 
in the South in the Revolution, 236; 
slavery provisions in the Constitu- 
tion, 284; forbidden in the North- 
west Territory, 274; position of 
Congress definitely stated, 301; ef- 
fects of the cotton-gin, 316; in the 
two sections in 1820, 415-6; in Louisi- 
ana, 415; in Missouri, 417; in the 
Territories, 418; effects of slavery on 
manufactures, 435, 597; in Arkansas, 
454; proposal to abolish slavery (see 
Abolitionists); riots, 493; petition, 
494; slavery in Texas, 505; State rep- 

. resentation in Congress, 508; the 
slavery question becomes more 
pressing, 516; in the Mexican ac- 
quisition, 545; positions of the sec- 
tions, 545; attempt to prohibit, 546; 
rise of the Free-Soil Party. 547; 
slavery in California, 553; political 
questions of 1850, 553; compro- 
mised, 555 ; the Fugitive Slave Law, 
556; anti-slavery leaders, 558; in- 
fluence of slavery on public affairs, 
571; how the Democratic Party es- 
caped it for the time, 573; the Kan- 
sas-Nebraska Act, 574; the Repub- 
lican Party, 576; slavery in Kansas, 
578-80; election of 1856, 583; effects 
of slavery on the South, 597, 605; in 
the Territories, 598; the Dred Scott 
decision, 600; the effect on the Dem- 
ocratic Party, 602, 608; the John 
Brown raid, 604; the sections in 
i860, 606-7, 612; parties, 60S; eman- 
cipation, 66g; results abroad, 671; 
the object of the war, 749; aboli- 
tion by Amendment, 757; after- 
effects, 758; free labor in the 
South, 824. 

Slave-trade, the foreign, in 1775, 188; 
in 1787, 279. 

Sloughter (slaw'ter), Gov. Henry, 113. 



Smith, John, 77. 

Smith, Jospeh, 495. 

Smithsonian Institution, the, 519. 

" Sons of Liberty," 165. 

Soto, Hernando de, 14. 

South Carolina, discovered, 9; part of 
the London Company's grant, 32; 
settled, 97; products, 98; districts, 
99; early wars, 101-2; has troops 
at Fort Necessity, 145; in 1775 and 
1880, 184; military operations in the 
State during the Revolution, 203, 
245-51, 254, 264; Western claims, 271; 
ceded to the United States, 273; 
niillification, 476-7; secedes, 610; 
military operations in, 622, 636, 688, 
728; reconstructed and readmitted, 
762; disorders in, 790. 

Spain, aids Columbus, 5; secures his 
discoyeries, 7; further Spanish dis- 
coveries, 9; agreement with Portu- 
gal, 12; explorations in the interior 
of North x\merica, 13, 14; con- 
quers Mexico, 14; explores the 
Pacific coast, 15; drives the French 
from St. Augustine, 18; colonies 
south of the United States, 30; 
early wars with, loi, 106; enters 
the war in 1762, 153; gives up Flor- 
ida and receives Louisiana, 154-5; 
enters the Revolutionary War 
against Great Britain, 227, note; re- 
gains Florida, 263; agrees by treaty 
to the free navigation of the Missis- 
sippi, 315; transfers Louisiana to 
France, 334; the Spanish in Florida 
aid the British, 398; Spain trans- 
fers Florida, 414; refuses to sell 
Cuba, 570; joins France against 
Mexico, 695; the Virginius case, 779; 
war with Cuba, 863; policy toward 
Cuba, 874, 878; war with the United 
States, 879; her Asiatic fieet de- 
stroyed at Manila, 881 ; signs treaty 
of peace at Paris, S85; transfers the 
Philippines to the United States, 
900; transfers the control of Cuba 
to the United States, 902; withdraws 
her troops from Cuba, 902; trans- 
fers Porto Rico to the United 
States, 903. 

Spanish War, the, declaration of war, 
879; preparations for war, 880; bat- 
tle of Manila Bay, 881 ; the Santiago 
campaign, 882; occupation of Porto 
Rico, 883; friction with the Cubans, 
884; peace, 885; finances of the 
war, 886. 

Specie Circular, the, 485. 

.Specie payments resumed, 1879, 813. 

Spoils system, the, defined, 467. 

Spottsylvania Court-house, battle of, 
701. 

Springfield, 111., 738. 

Springfield, Mass., 276. 

Stamp Act, the, passed by Parlia- 
ment, 164; resisted, 166; repealed, 
167. 

Stamp Act Congress, the, i66- 



6o8 



PRONOUNCING INDEX 
The references are to Sections, not to pages. 



Stamp duties before the Revolution, 

164; in 1898. 886. 
Standish, Miles, the soldier of the 

Plymouth colony, 47. 
Stanton, E. M., removed by Johnson, 

766. 
Stark, John, at Bennington, 220. 
Star of the West, the, driven back 

from Fort Sumter, 617. 
Star-Spangled Banner, the, 387, note. 
State Department, the, 298. 
Staten (stat'n) Island, N. Y., occu- 
pied by the British, 207; held by 
them during the war, 229, 231; 
threatened by Washington, 258. 
States, the, the formation of State 
governments, 204; whence they de- 
rived their authority, 269; their ac- 
tion restricted by the Articles of 
Confederation, 270; boundary dis- 
putes, 271-2; send delegates to a 
Federal Convention, 279; restric- 
tions on their action under the 
Constitution, 281; new States and 
Amendments, 284; their ratification 
of the Constitution, 286; the great 
States of the Northwest, 274; the 
electoral system, 295; the Republic- 
ans incline to favor the States, 
304; slave States, 415; the Western 
States in 1835, 449; the Eastern 
States, 450; the States go into in- 
ternal improvements, 453; distinc- 
tion between State Rights and State 
Sovereignty, 475! the right of the 
States to secede, 475; to nullify the 
laws of the United States, 280, 476; 
how State representation in Con- 
gress was related to slavery, 508; 
the right of voting in the States, 
513; proposed annexation of slave 
States, 570; the Kansas struggle 
between free and slave States, 578- 
80; secession of a part of the States, 
610 (see Secession) ; the work of 
the State conventions, 614; of the 
doctrine of State Sovereignty, 615; 
action of the border States, 626; 
the Southern State governments 
overthrown, 755; reconstructed, 762 
(see Reconstruction). 
Steamboat, the. Fitch's attempt to 
produce one, 312; need of a steam- 
boat on Western rivers, 315, note; 
in the Louisiana purchase, 334; Ful- 
ton's success, 337; put to use on 
American rivers, 405, 422; builds 
up Western towns, 449; put to use 
on the ocean, 337, note, 447; facili- 
tates migration, 452. 
Steam war-vessels, Fulton's attempt, 

384; the screw propeller, 447. 
Stephens, Alexander H., elected Vice- 
President of the Confederate States, 
614. 
Stevenson, Adlai E., Vice-President, 
854; renominated for Vice-Presi- 
dent, 906. 
Steuben (stoi'ben), Baron von, 214. 



Stewart, Capt. Charles, in command 
of the Constitiitwn, 375. 

Stillwater, the battle of, 22J. 

Stone River, battle of, 645. 

Stone, Samuel, a Connecticut pio- 
neer, 50. 

Stonington, Conn., attacked by the 
British, 384. 

Stony Point, capture of, 237. 

Story, William, a distinguished Amer- 
ican lawyer, 459. 

Strikes, the Railroad, 806, 853, 858. 

Stuart, Gen. J. E. B., a Confederate 
cavalry officer, 662. 

Stuyvesant (sti've-sant), Peter, the 
last Dutch governor of New Nether- 
land, 109. 

Suffrage (or vote), the right of, 789. 

Sullivan, Gen. John, in command of 
the attack on Newport, 230; chas- 
tises the hostile Indians, 232. 

Sulu (zoo'-loo). Archipelago, the, 901. 

Sumner, Charles, an antislavery lead- 
er, 558; assault upon him, 581. 

Sumter, Gen. Thomas, a Revolution- 
ary leader in South Carolina, 248, 
250. 

Supreme Court, the, its duties, 283, 
599; established, 298; decides the 
question of slavery in the Territo- 
ries, 600; its decision rejected, 601; 
the income tax decision, 860; Anti- 
Trust Act decision, 891. 

Surplus, the, 836. 

Susquehannah (sus-kwe-han'na) Riv- 
er, the, 89. 

Swamp Fight, the, 69. 

Swanzey (swon'zl), Mass., attacked 
by the Indians, 68. 

Syracuse, N. Y., 354. 

Tagalos (ta-ga'los), the, a Philip- 
pine tribe, 900. 

Tampa Bay, Fla., 14, 880. 

Taney (taw'ne), Roger B., Chief Jus- 
tice, 481. 

Tariff (see Revenue, Free Trade, Pro- 
tection), the province of the States 
under the Confederation, 275; trans- 
ferred to Congress by the Consti- 
tution, 281; the first Tariff, 299; 
the Protective Tariff of 1824, 426; 
increased in 1828, 434; the Com- 
promise Tariff of 1833, 478; the 
semi-protective Tariff of 1842, 501; 
the Revenue Tariff of 1846, 521; the 
Protective Tariff of 1861, 691; re- 
ceipts from it, 748; still maintained, 
825; reduced, 859; the Dingley 
tariff, 870; the Porto Rican tariff, 

Tariff Commission, the, 825. 

Tarleton, Major, a British cavalry 
officer, 247; beaten at the Cowpens, 
251; plunders Virginia, 255. 

Tarrytown, N. Y., 238. 

Taxes, in Great Britain, 161; in the 
colonies, 162; commercial taxation, 
169 (see Parliament); under the 



PRONOUNCING INDEX 

^:W° The references are to Sections, not to pages. 



609 



Taxes — Contimted. 
Confederation, 275; under the .Con- 
stitution, 281 ; during the Civil 
War, 691; in the reconstructed 
States, 789. 
Taylor, Gen. Richard, surrenders, 

727. 
Taylor, Zachary, beats the Seminoles 
at Lake Okechobee, 463; ordered 
to the Rio (jrande, 524; beats the 
Mexicans and drives them across 
the Rio Grande, 526; follows to 
Monterey, 531; deprived of part 
of his army, 532; wins the battle of 
Buena Vista, 533; returns to the 
United States, 533; elected Presi- 
dent, 548; death, 557. 
Tea Tax, the, 173. 

Tecumseh (te-kum'se), defeated at 
Tippecanoe, 350; killed at the 
Thames, 361. 
Tehuantepec (te-hoo-ahn'te-pek), 896. 
Telegraph, the, its invention, 510. 
Telephone, its invention, 805. 
Tennessee, the first settlers from 
North Carolina, 94, 157, note, 235; 
North Carolina's claim ceded to the 
United States, 273; admitted as a 
State, 302; secedes, 626; occupied 
by the Union forces, 641 ; military 
operations in, 640-3, 645, 648, 685-7, 
711; reconstructed, 760. 
Tennessee River, the, reached by De 
Soto, 14; military operations on, 
641, 648. 
Tennessee, the, taken by Farragut, 

718. 
Tenure of Ofifice Act, the, its passage 

and purpose, 766; repealed, 831. 
Territories, the, first cessions by the 
States to the United States, 273; 
their government under the Consti- 
tution, 284; the Ordinance of 1787, 
274; acquisition of Louisiana, 334; 
of Florida, 414; slavery in the Ter- 
ritories, 415-19 (see Compromises); 
the Mexican acquisition, 528, 530, 
543; polygamy in the Territories, 
586, 913; acquisition of Alaska, and 
summary, 773; acquisition of 
Hawaii, 888. 
Texas, supposed at first to be a part 
of the Louisiana purchase, 334, note; 
the claim of the United States ex- 
changed for Florida, 414; becomes 
a part of Mexico, but is settled by 
American citizens, 505; secedes froin 
Mexico, 506; its annexation desired 
by the South, 507; reasons for the 
desire, 508; annexation, 516; ad- 
mission, 522; boundary, 524; com- 
promised, 555; secedes, 613; refuses 
the first terms of reconstruction, 
762; reconstructed and readmitted, 
788. 
Thames (temz), battle of the river, 

361. 
Third term, refused by Washington, 
310. 



Thomas, Gen. George H., at Mil! 
Spring, 640; at Chickamauga, 685; 
sent back to Tennessee, 710; de- 
feats Hood, 711. 

Thornton, Capt., capture of, 525. 

TInrc Friends, the, seized and for- 
feited, 873. 

Thurman, A. G., nominated for Vice- 
President, 840. 

Ticonderoga (ti-kon-de-ro'ga), held by 
Montcalm, 148; taken by the Eng- 
lish, 150; by Ethan Allen, 199; by 
Burgoyne, 218. 

Tilden, Samuel J., nominated for 
President, 797; his election dis- 
puted, 798; the_ decision, 801. 

Tippecanoe (tip-pe-ka-noo'), battle of, 
350. 

Titusville, Pa., 590. 

Tobacco, 22, 78. 

Tohopeka (to-ho-pe'ka), battle of, 396. 

Toledo, O., a French post, 139; 
Wayne's victory, 308. 

Tompkins, Daniel D., elected Vice- 
President, 409; re-elected, 413. 

Tories, meaning of the term, 170, 479; 
in the Middle States, 207; in the 
South, 246; after the war, 266. 

Toronto (to-ron'tO), Can., 362. 

Torpedoes, their first use, 384; against 
the Albemarle, 716; in Mobile Bay, 
718. 

Travel, difScuIties of. See Roads. 

Treasury Department, the, 298. 

Treaties, the treaty power, 281; Jay's 
treaty, 309; treaty of Ghent, 400; ex- 
tradition treaties, 502; treaty of 
Washington, 777; the San Domingo 
treaty, 778; the Chinese treaty, 815; 
treaty of Paris, 885. 

Trent, the, arrested by the San 
Jacinto, 638. 

Trenton, N. J., Washington's retreat 
through, 210; breaks camp at, 212. 

Trevithick (trev'ith-ik), Richard, his 
locomotive, 429. 

Tripolitan War, the, 342, 404. 

Trusts, 838, 891. 

Truxton, Capt. Thomas, in command 
of the Constellation, 319. 

Tryon, Gov. William, 94. 

Tunis (tu'nis), 342, 404. 

Turner, Nat, leader of unsuccessful 
negro insurrection, 462. 

Tuscaroras (tus-ka-ro'raz), an Indian 
tribe, 3; driven north to New York, 
95- 

Tutuila (too-too-e'la), an island of 
the Samoan group, 894. 

Tyler, John, elected Vice-President, 
49S; becomes President, 500; vetoes 
the Bank Acts, 501 ; quarrels with the 
\\'higs, 501 ; makes an unsuccessful 
treaty of annexation with Texas, 
507; hurries the annexation, 516. 

United States, location, i; first vis- 
ited by whites, 10; English coloni- 
zation, 23, 25-31, foil.; the New 



6lo PRONOUNCING INDEX 

tM^ The references are to Sections, not to pages. 



United S\.a.\e^—Conlzn!)ed. 

England Confederation, 66; general 
union of the colonies against the 
French, 145, 159; against taxation 
by Parliament, 166, 171, 177; against 
the use of force by Parliament, 191 ; 
against the king, and for entire in- 
dependence, 204-5 (see Revolution, 
the American) ; independence ac- 
knowledged, 263; boundaries in 
1783, 263; becomes a nation, 268; 
the Articles of Confederation, 270; 
their failure, 275; the Constitution 
formed, 279; ratified, 286; the 
United States in 1787, 288-92; the 
Constitution inaugurated, 294; first 
legislation, 297-8; parties, 303-4 (see 
Republican Party of 1792, Federal 
Party) ; the United States in 1795, 
312-16; hostilities against France, 
319; the United States in 1800, 324; 
the first great change of party gov- 
ernment, 331-2; acquisition of 
Louisiana, 334; the steamboat, ZZ7'> 
the Tripolitan War, 342; difficulties 
with Great Britain, 343-50; war, 351; 
the United States in 1810, 353-5; 
failures in the North, 356-64; suc- 
cesses on the ocean, 365-77; on the 
lakes, 378-82; disasters on the At- 
lantic coast, 383-8; dissatisfaction at 
home, 389-go; successes in the 
North, 391-3; in the Southwest, 
394-9; peace, 400-1; results of the 
War of 1812, 403; the United 
States in 1815, 405-8; acquisition of 
Florida, 414; the Missouri dispute, 
415-18; the Monroe Doctrine, 420; 
the United States in 1824, 421-4; 
Free Trade and Protection, 425; in- 
vention of the railroad, 429 (see 
Railroads) ; the American System, 
434; the United States in 1835,449- 
6s; political struggles under Jack- 
son, 466-81 ; financial difficulties lui- 
der Van Ijuren, 484-9; antislavery 
agitation, 492-4; the Mormons, 495; 
the log-cabin campaign of 1840, 498; 
the Oregon question, 504; rise of 
the Texas question, 505-6; the tele- 
graph, 510; annexation of Texas, 
515-16; the United States in 1845, 
517-20; the Mexican War, 524-7; 
seizure of the Pacific Coast, 528-30; 
operations in Northern Mexico, 
531-3; in Central Mexico, 534^42; 
peace, 543; summary of territorial 
acquisitions, 544; sectional strife 
over the Mexican acquisition, 545- 
56; gold discovered in California, 
549-50; party changes, 558, 560; the 
United States in 1853, 564-6; natu- 
ralization questions, 567-8; Japan, 
569; the Filibusters, 570; slavery 
and politics, 571-3; the Kansas- 
Nebraska Act, 574-83; rise of the 
Republican Party, 576; the Kansas 
struggle, 578-80; the United States 
in i860, 588-95; how slavery had 



United S\.Si\.es—Co7itinued 

pushed the sections apart, 596-607; 
the Dred Scott case, 599-602; parties 
in i860, 608-9; secession, 610-3; the 
Confederate States, 614; the second 
great change in party government, 
621; surrender of Fort Sumter, 6^2; 
Civil War, 623-7; the opposing lines 
in i86j, 628-9; military events of 
1861, 630-7; the Trent affair, 638; mili- 
tary events of 1862 in the West, 639- 
48; on the coast, 649-55; in the East, 
656-68; Emancipation, 669; financial 
affairs, 670; privateering, 672; mili- 
tary events of 1863 in the East, 674-8; 
in the West, 679-87; on the coast, 688; 
the West, 679-87; on the coast, 688; 
the United States in 1863, 690-3; in- 
tervention of France in Mexico, 
695; military events of 1864 in the 
East, 699-705; in the West, 706-14; 
on the coast, 715-18; on the ocean, 
720; the United States in 1864, 
721-6; conclusion of the war, 727-35; 
assassination of the President, 736- 
9; military summary of the war, 
740-9; acquisition of Alaska, 773; 
Reconstruction, 753-64 (see Recon- 
struction) ; impeachment of Presi- 
dent Johnson, 765-8; the treaty of 
Washington, 776-7; the United 
States in 1876, 780-7; the disputed 
election of 1876, 797-802; the United 
States in 1878, 804-9; the silver ques- 
tion, 810-2, 865; resumption, 813; 
refunding, 814; assassination of 
President Garfield, 818; the United 
States in 1884, 820-6; in i888, 840; 
the Panama Canal, 834; the United 
States in 1885, 841-8; relations with 
Cuba grow acute, 873; war declared 
against Spain, 879; preparations for 
war, 880; naval victory at Manila, 
881; military operations in Cuba, 
882, 884; occupation of Porto Rico, 
883; peace with Spain, 885; annexa- 
tion of Hawaii, 888; government 
support of I'acific railroads ended, 
890; partition of Samoan Islands, 
894; the Hague peace conference, 
897; war in the Philippines, 900; 
government of the Philippines, 901; 
administrative measures in Cuba, 
902; free trade denied to Porto 
Rico, 904 
United States, the, captures the Mace- 
donian, 368. 
Universal Suffrage, 789. 
L'plandt (oop'lahnt), Pa., 123. 
Utah (yoo'tah), a Territory, 555 (see 
Mormons) ; admitted as a State, 862. 

Valley Forge, 217. 

N'alparaiso (vahl-pah-ri'so), 373, 850. 

\'ane. Sir Henry, 50. 

Van Huren, Alartin, elected Vice- 
President, 473; President, 480; de- 
feated in 1840, 498; in 1848, 548; not 
nominated in 1844, 515. 



PRONOUNCING INDEX 



6ii 



' The references are to Sections, not to pages. 



Van Twiller, Woutcr, governor, 109. 

Venezuela, 861. 

Vera Cruz (va'rah kroos), Mex., taken 
by Scott, 534-5. 

Vermont, part of the Plymouth Com- 
pany's grant, 33; early history. 65; 
slavery forbidden, 188; Vermonters 
seize Ticonderoga, 199; repulse a 
British expedition at I'ennington, 
220; not yet recognized by Con- 
gress, 220; admitted, 302. 

Verrazzani (veR-Rat-sah'ne), 11. 

Vespucci (ves-poot'che), Amerigo, 
gives a name to America, 8. 

Veto Power, the, belongs to the 
President, 281, 469, note; hovi' Presi- 
dent Johnson lost the advantage of 
it, 759,765; Cleveland's use of it, 
830. 

Vicksburgh, Miss., Grant's first move- 
ment toward it, 646; its fortifica- 
tions, 655; besieged by Grant, 680- 
2; surrenders, 682. 

Vice-President, the, his duties, 282; 
mode of election, 295. 

Vincennes (vin-senz'), Ind., a French 
post, 139; taken by Clarke, 235. 

Virginia, probably visited by Cabot, 
10; named by Raleigh, 23; diiTerence 
between Raleigh's " Virginia " and 
the modern State, 27; part of the 
London Company's grant, $2; be- 
comes a royal colony, 35; slavery, 
39; first settlement, 76; John Smith, 
77; western claims, 79, 271; the 
" Old Dominion," 80, note; Bacon's 
Rebellion, 82; life in Virginia, 83-4, 
108; organizes the first Ohio Com- 
pany, 141; endeavors to drive away 
the French, 142-4; calls for the 
Stamp Act Congress, 166; Virginia 
in 177s and 1880, 184; calls for in- 
dependence, 20s; conquers the 
Northwest Territory, 235; military 
operations in the State, 252, 255, 
258-61; cedes the western claims to 
the United States, 273; calls for 
the Federal Convention, 278; rati- 
fies the Constitution, 286; negro 
insurrection of 1831, 462; John 
Brown's raid, 604; secedes, 626; 
one of the Confederate States, 628 
(see West Virginia); military opera- 
tions in the State begin, 628 (see 
United States) ; rejects the first 
terms of reconstruction, 762 (elec- 
toral votes not counted in 1868), 768, 
note; reconstructed and readmitted, 
788. 

Virginia City, Nev., discovery of sil- 
ver, 590. 

Virginia, the. See Merrimac. 

Virgiuius, the, seized by a Spanish 
war vessel, 779. 

\'ote, the right to, 789. 

Vulcanized rubber, invented, 491. 

Pi'^achiisett (wa-choo'set), the, captures 
the Florida, 720. 



Walker, William, 570, note. 

Wampanoags (wom-pa-no'agz), an In- 
dian tribe, 68. 

War Department, the, 298; investiga- 
tion of the charges against it, 
89b. 

Warner, Seth, at Bennington, 220. 

War Power, the, the power to declare 
and make war, 281 ; exercised 
against Great Britain, 351; against 
Mexico, 527; the Civil War, 625; 
the Spanish War, 879; war in the 
Philippines, 900. 

Warren, Gen. Joseph, killed at 
Bunker Hill, 196, note. 

War revenue act of 1898, 886. 

Warwick (wor'rik), R. I., settlement, 
62. 

Washington, D. C, named as the na- 
tional capital, 299; capital removed 
thither, 324; burned by the British, 
386; its safety secured in 1861, 623; 
in the line of war, 629; its fortifi- 
cations, 633; threatened by the 
Merrimac, 650; necessity of protec- 
ing it, 657. 659; threatened by Jack- 
son, 662; by Jackson and Lee, 664; 
by Early, 703; general review at 
the capital, 735. 

Washington, George, sent to Presque 
Isle, 142; against Fort Duquesne, 
143; surrenders Fort Necessity, 
144; one of Braddock's aids, 146; 
member of the Continental Con- 
gress, 192-3; appointed to command 
the American armies, 191; takes 
command at Cambridge, 197; drives 
the British from Boston, 198; moves 
his army to New York, 208; is de- 
feated on Long Island, 209; retreats 
beyond White Plains, 209; through 
New Jersey, 210; Congress makes 
him dictator and retires, 211; wins 
the battles of Trenton and Prince- 
ton, 212; holds northern New Jer- 
sey, 213; moves his army to Phila- 
delphia, 215; defeated at Chad's Ford 
and Germantown, 216; his winter 
quarters at Valley Forge, 217; 
scheme to take the command away 
from him, 223; fights the drawn 
battle of Monmouth, 228; holds the 
British in New York City, 229; 
his difficulties, 234, 256; marches to 
Yorktown, 257-8; besieges and cap- 
tures it, 260-1 ; favors the Federal 
Convention, 278; is made its Presi- 
dent, 279; is elected President, 287; 
inaugurated, 294; re-elected, 304; re- 
quests recall of Genet, 306; sup- 
presses Whiskey Insurrection, 307; 
Farewell Address, 310; recalled to 
the head of the army, 319; death, 

325- 
Washingtonian Societies, 460. 
Washington (State), 835. 
Washington, treaty of, 777. 
H'n.?/', the, takes the Frolic, 368; the 
Reindeer and Avon, 374. 



6i2 PRONOUNCING INDEX 

IS" The references are to Sections, not to pages. 



Watling's Island, 6. 

Watson, Thomas E., defeated for 
Vice-President, 865. 

Waxhaws, battle of the, 247. 

Wayne (wan?), Gen. Anthony, at 
Stony Point, 237; defeats the In- 
dians, 308. 

Weather Bureau, the, 821. 

Weaver, Gen. J. B., nominated for 
President, 854. 

Webster, Daniel, 459; a leader of the 
Whig Party, 471 ; desired for Presi- 
dent, 480; his share in the extradi- 
tion treaty, 501; death, 558. 

Webster, Noah^ 457. 

Wcchawken (we-haw'ken), the, takes 
the Atlanta, 688. 

West, A. M., nominated for Presi- 
dent, 826, note. 

West, Benjamin, a painter, 187. 

Western Pacific Railway, 890. 

Western Reserve, the, 273. 

West Florida, 154. 

West Indies, the, discovered by Co- 
lumbus, 6; French possessions in, 
230, 266. 

West Virginia, rejects secession, 626; 
the Confederates driven out of it, 
630; admission, 694. 

Wethersfield, Conn., settlement, 58. 

Weyler (vay-larr'). Gen. Valeriano, 
Governor-General of Cuba, 873; re- 
called, 874. 

Wheeler, \Vm. A., nominated for 
Vice-President, 797; his election dis- 
puted, 798; decision, 801. 

Whig Party, the supporters of the 
American System, 434; at first take 
the name of National Republicans, 
437; defeated in 1828, 438; support 
the Bank, 471; defeated in 1832, 
473; take the name of Whigs, 479; 
defeated in 1836, 480; successful in 
1840, 498; demand another Bank, 
501 ; quarrel with the President, 501 ; 
defeated in 1844, 515; oppose the 
Mexican War, 527; successful in 
1848, 548; the party goes to pieces, 
560; completely defeated in 1852, 
563; disappears, 572; succeeded by 
the Republican Party, 576. 

Whigs, in the Revolution, 170; in the 
South, 246; in England, 479. 

Whipping, punishment by, 461. 

Whiskey Insurrection, the, 307. 

Whiskey Ring, the, 794. 

Whitefield (whit'feeld), George, a re- 
vivalist, 133. 

White, Hugh L., nominated for Presi- 
dent, 480. 

White, John, leader of one of Ra- 
leigh's colonics, 23. 

White Plains, battle of, 209. 

Whitney, Eli, his cotton-gin, 316. 

Whittier, John G., his literary work, 
457- 



Wildcat banks, 484-5. 

Wilderness Campaign, the, 701-2. 

Wilkinson, Gen. James, 363. 

William and Mary College, 84. 

William (of Orange), King, 42. 

Williamsburgh, battle of, 659. 

Williamsburgh, Va., 82. 

Williams, Roger, banished, 51; settles 
in Rhode Island, 62. 

Wilmington, Del., 29. 

Wilmington, N. C, held by Corn- 
wallis, 253, 255; recovered by the 
Americans, 261; a port for blockade- 
runners, 652, 715; taken by the 
Union forces, 716. 

Wilmot Proviso, the, 546. 

Wilson tariff bill, 859. 

Wilson, Henry, Vice-President, 796. 

Wilson's Creek, battle of, 635. 

Winchester, battle of, 705. 

Winchester, Gen. James, 359. 

Windsor (win'zur), Conn., settlement, 
58. 

Winslow, Capt. John A., in command 
of the Kcarsargc, 720. 

Winthrop, John, of Massachusetts, 49. 

Winthrop, Jr., John, of Connecticut, 
61. 

Wisconsin, claimed by Virginia, 271; 
a wilderness in 1828, 430; admission, 
522; forest fires, 784. 

Witchcraft, the Salem, 53. 

Withlacoochee (with-la-coo'chee), Riv- 
er, the, 463. 

Wolfe, Gen. James, at Quebec, 150-1. 

Wood, (ien. Leonard, Tjovernor-Gen- 
eral of Cuba, 902. 

Woodford, Gen. Stewart L., minister 
to Spain, 873. 

Wool, Gen. John E., 531. 

Worcester (woo'ster), Mass., 276. 

World's Fair at Chicago, 845. 

Wyoming (wi-o'ming), Pa., plundered 
by Tories and Indians, 232; claimed 
by Connecticut, 273. 

Wyoming, admitted to the Union, 



Yale College, founded, 75. 

Yazoo River, the, 681. 

Yellow-fever, the, 808, 902. 

Yeo, Sir James L., in command of 
the British fleet on Lake Ontario, 
380. 

York, Can., 362, 386, note. 

York, Pa., 217. 

York River, the, 255, 657. 

Yorktown, Va., seized and fortified 
by Cornwallis, 255; besieged by 
Washington and Rochambeau, 260; 
surrendered, 261; taken by the 
Union forces, 659; anniversary of 
Cornwallis's surrender, 820. 

ZoLLicoFFER (zol'li-kof-fer). Gen. 
Felix, killed at Mill Spring, 640. 






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The Atlantic Monthly : " Commands our very sincere respect ; . . . 
there is no glaring improbability about his story; . . . the highly dramatic 
crisis of the story. . . . The tone and manner of the book are noble. . . . 
A timely, manly, thorouglibred, and eminently suggestive book." 

The Review 0/ Rei'iews : '"His relations with women were of uncon- 
ventional sincerity and depth. . . . Worth reading on several accounts." 

The Dial : " One of the strongest and most vital characters that have 
appeared in our fiction. ... A very charming love story. To discern the 
soul of yood in so evil a thing as municipal politics calls for sympathies 
that are not often united with a sane ethical outlook; but Peter Stirling is 
possessed of the one without losing his sense of the other, and it is this 
combination of qualities that make him so impressive and admirable a 
figure. . . . Both a readable and an ethically helpful book." 

The Neif York Tribune: "A portrait which is both alive and easily 
recognizable." 

The New York Times : "Mr. Ford's able political novel." 

The Literary IVorld : "A fine, tender love story. ... A very unusual, 
but, let us believe, a possible character. . . . Peter Stirling is a man's 
hero. . . . Very readable and enjoyable." 

The Independent : "Full of life. The interest never flags. ... It is 
long since we have read a better novel or one more thoroughly and natu- 
rally American." 

The Boston Advertiser: " Sure to excite attention and win popularity." 

The Brooklyn Eagle : " A love and labor story; . . . terribly pictur- 
esque. . . . Abundance of humor." 

The Baltimore Sun: "The team of politics and love drive very well 
together. . . . Mr. Ford has created a very effective character under very 
difficult circumstances." 

HENRY HOLT & CO., ^^ "^^^X^^^^^^"^^^ 



